THE SUN BEAR

The sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) is a bear species occurring in tropical forest habitats of Southeast Asia. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. The global population is thought to have declined by more than 30% over the past three bear generations. Suitable habitat has been dramatically reduced due to the large-scale deforestation that has occurred throughout Southeast Asia over the past three decades.^[1]
The sun bear is also known as the "honey bear", which refers to its voracious appetite for honeycombs and honey.^[2] However, "honey bear" can also refer to a kinkajou, which is an unrelated member of the Procyonidae.

 

 

Characteristics

Sun bear skull

The sun bear's fur is usually jet-black, short, and sleek with some under-wool; some individual sun bears are reddish or grey.^[3] Two whirls occur on the shoulders, from where the hair radiates in all directions. A crest is seen on the sides of the neck and a whorl occurs in the centre of the breast patch. Always, a more or less crescent-shaped pale patch is found on the breast that varies individually in colour ranging from buff, cream, or dirty white to ochreous. The skin is naked on the upper lip. The tongue is long and protrusible. The ears are small and round, broad at the base, and capable of very little movement. The front legs are somewhat bowed with the paws turned inwards, and the claws are cream.^[4]
The sun bear is the smallest of the bear species. Adults are about 120–150 cm (47–59 in) long and weigh 27–80 kg (60–176 lb). Males are 10–20% larger than females. Their muzzles are short and light-coloured, and in most cases, the white area extends above the eyes. Their paws are large, and the soles are fur-less, which is thought to be an adaptation for climbing trees. Their claws are large, curved, and pointed.^[3][5][6] The sun bear's claws are sickle-shaped; the front paw claws are long and heavy. The tail is 30–70 mm (1.2–2.8 in) long.^[7]
During feeding, the sun bear can extend its exceptionally long tongue 20–25 cm (7.9–9.8 in) to extract insects and honey.^[8] The sun bear's teeth are very large, especially canines, and high bite forces in relation to its body size, which are not well understood, but could be related to its frequent opening of tropical hardwood trees (with its powerful jaws and claws) in pursuit of insects, larvae, or honey.^[9] The animal's entire head is also large, broad, and heavy in proportion to the body, and the palate is wide in proportion to the skull. The overall morphology of this bear (inward-turned front feet, ventrally flattened chest, powerful forelimbs with large claws) indicates adaptation for extensive climbing.^[3]

Distribution and habitat

Sun bears are found in the tropical rainforest of Southeast Asia ranging from northeastern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam to southern Yunnan Province in China, and on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo in Indonesia. They now occur very patchily through much of their former range, and have been extirpated from many areas, especially in mainland Southeast Asia. Their current distribution in eastern Myanmar and most of Yunnan is unknown.^[1] The bear’s habitat is associated with tropical evergreen forests.^[10]

Distribution of subspecies

• The Malayan sun bear (H. m. malayanus (Raffles, 1821)) occurs on the Asian mainland and Sumatra.^[11]
• The Bornean sun bear (H. m. euryspilus (Horsfield, 1825)) occurs only on the island of Borneo.^[12]

Helarctos anmamiticus, described by Pierre Marie Heude in 1901 from Annam, is not considered a distinct species, but is subordinated (a junior synonym) to H. m. malayanus.^[11]

Ecology and behavior

As sun bears occur in tropical regions with year-round available foods, they do not hibernate. Except for females with their offspring, they are usually solitary.^[1] Male sun bears are primarily diurnal, but some are active at night for short periods. Bedding sites consist mainly of fallen hollow logs, but they also rest in standing trees with cavities, in cavities underneath fallen logs or tree roots, and in tree branches high above the ground.^[13]
In captivity, they exhibit social behavior, and sleep mostly during the day.^[14]
Sun bears are known as very fierce animals when surprised in the forest.^[3]

Diet

A sun bear in Shanghai Zoo showing its powerful jaws

Bees, beehives, and honey are important food items of sun bears.^[2] They are omnivores, feeding primarily on termites, ants, beetle larvae, bee larvae and a large variety of fruit species, especially figs when available. They have been observed eating fruits from the durian species Durio graveolens.^[15] Occasionally, growth shoots of certain palms and some species of flowers are consumed, but otherwise vegetative matter appears rare in the diet. In the forests of Kalimantan, fruits of Moraceae, Burseraceae and Myrtaceae make up more than 50% of the fruit diet.^[6] They are known to tear open trees with their long, sharp claws and teeth in search of wild bees and leave behind shattered tree trunks.^[16]
Sun bear scats collected in a forest reserve in Sabah contained mainly invertebrates such as beetles and their larvae, termites, and ants, followed by fruits and vertebrates. They break open decayed wood in search of termites, beetle larvae, and earthworms, and use their claws and teeth to break the standing termite mound into a few pieces. They quickly lick and suck the contents from the exposed mound, and also hold pieces of the broken mound with their front paws, while licking the termites from the surface of the mound. They consume figs in large amounts and eat them whole. Vertebrates consumed comprise birds, eggs, reptiles, turtles, deer and several unidentified small vertebrates.^[17] Hair or bone remains are rarely found in sun bear scat.^[18]
They can crack open nuts with their powerful jaws. Much of their food must be detected using their keen sense of smell.^{[citation needed]}

Reproduction

Females are observed to mate at about 3 years of age. During time of mating, the sun bear shows behaviours such as hugging, mock fighting, and head bobbing with its mate.
Gestation has been reported at 95 and 174 days. Litters consist of one or two cubs weighing about 280–325 g (9.9–11.5 oz) each.^[5][19] Cubs are born blind and hairless. Initially, they are totally dependent on their mothers, and suckle for about 18 months. After one to three months, the young can run, play, and forage near their mothers. They reach sexual maturity after 3–4 years, and may live up to 30 years in captivity.^{[citation needed]}

Threats

The two major threats to sun bears are habitat loss and commercial hunting. These threats are not evenly distributed throughout their range. In areas where deforestation is actively occurring, they are mainly threatened by the loss of forest habitat and forest degradation arising from clear-cutting for plantation development, unsustainable logging practices, illegal logging both within and outside protected areas, and forest fires.^[1]
The main predator of sun bears throughout its range by far is man. Commercial poaching of bears for the wildlife trade is a considerable threat in most countries. During surveys in Kalimantan between 1994 and 1997, interviewees admitted to hunting sun bears and indicated that sun bear meat is eaten by indigenous people in several areas in Kalimantan. High consumption of bear parts was reported to occur where Japanese or Korean expatriate employees of timber companies created a temporary demand. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) shops in Sarawak and Sabah offered sun bear gallbladders. Several confiscated sun bears indicated that live bears are also in demand for the pet trade.^[20]
Sun bears are among the three primary bear species specifically targeted for the bear bile trade in Southeast Asia, and are kept in bear farms in Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar. Bear bile products include raw bile sold in vials, gall bladder by the gram or in whole form, flakes, powder and pills. The commercial production of bear bile from bear farming has turned bile from a purely traditional medicinal ingredient to a commodity with bile now found in non-TCM products like cough drops, shampoo, and soft drinks.^[21]
Tigers and other large cats are potential predators.^[22] American Museum of Natural History naturalist and co-founder Albert S. Bickmore described a case in which a tiger-sun bear interaction resulted in a prolonged altercation and in the death of both animals.^[23] A wild female sun bear was swallowed by a large reticulated python in a lowland dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan. The python possibly had come across the sleeping bear. Other predators on mainland Southeast Asia and Sumatra could be the leopard and the clouded leopard, although the latter could be too small to kill an adult sun bear.^[24]

Conservation

See also: Taman Negara

Helarctos malayanus has been listed on CITES Appendix I since 1979. Killing of sun bears is strictly prohibited under national wildlife protection laws throughout their range. However, little enforcement of these laws occurs.^[1]

In captivity

The Malayan sun bear is part of an international captive-breeding program and has a Species Survival Plan under the Association of Zoos and Aquariums since late 1994.^[19] Since that same year, the European breed registry for sun bears is kept in the Cologne Zoological Garden, Germany.^[25]
Comprehensive research about sun bear conservation and rehabilitation is the mission of the Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre in Sandakan, Sabah, founded in 2008 by wildlife biologist Wong Siew Te.

Gallery

• 

  Malayan sun bear at the Columbus Zoo
  
• 

  A juvenile sun bear at the Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre, Malaysia
  
• 

  Three sun bears at the Medan old zoo in Jalan Brigjen Katamso, Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia.
  
  
  

  • Malayan sun bear (H. m. malayanus) (Raffles, 1821))
  • Bornean sun bear (H. m. euryspilus) (Horsfield, 1825))

  
  
  
  
  
  Sun bear range
  (brown – extant, black – former, dark grey – presence uncertain) 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

THE PROBOSCIS MONKEY

The proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) or long-nosed monkey, known as the bekantan in Indonesia, is a reddish-brown arboreal Old World monkey with an unusually large nose. It is endemic to the southeast Asian island of Borneo.
This species co-exists with the Bornean orangutan.^[3] It belongs in the monotypic genus Nasalis.^[4]

 

Male, Labuk Bay, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia

Taxonomy

 
 Female with young, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia

 Proboscis monkeys belong to the subfamily Colobinae of the Old World monkeys. The two subspecies are:^[2]

• N. l. larvatus (Wurmb, 1787), which occupies the whole range of the species
• N. l. orientalis (Chasen, 1940), restricted to north-east Kalimantan

However, the difference between the subspecies is small, and not all authorities recognise N. l. orientalis.^[2]

Description

Male

Female

The proboscis monkey is a large species, being one of the largest monkey species native to Asia. Only the Tibetan macaque and a few of the gray langurs can rival its size. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in the species. Males have a head-body length of 66 to 76.2 cm (26.0 to 30.0 in) and typically weigh 16 to 22.5 kg (35 to 50 lb), with a maximum known weight of 30 kg (66 lb). Females measure 53.3 to 62 cm (21.0 to 24.4 in) in head-and-body length and weigh 7 to 12 kg (15 to 26 lb), with a maximum known mass of 15 kg (33 lb).^[5][6][7] Further adding to the dimorphism is the large nose or proboscis of the male, which can exceed 10.2 cm (4.0 in) in length,^[8] and hangs lower than the mouth. Theories for the extensive length of their nose suggest it may be sexual selection by the females, who prefer louder vocalisations, with the size of the nose increasing the volume of the call.^[9][10][11] Nevertheless, the nose of the female is still fairly large for a primate. The proboscis monkey has a long coat; the fur on the back is bright orange, reddish brown, yellowish brown or brick-red.^[10][11] The underfur is light-grey, yellowish, or greyish to light-orange.^[10][11] Infants are born with a blue coloured face that at 2.5 months darkens to grey. By 8.5 months of age, the face has become cream coloured like the adults.^[12] The male has a red penis with a black scrotum. Both sexes have bulging stomachs that give the monkeys what resembles a pot belly. Many of the monkeys' toes are webbed.^[10]

Behavior

 

 Female

Social behavior

Jumping (composite image, from right to left), Labuk Bay, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia

Proboscis monkeys generally live in groups composed of one adult male, some adult females and their offspring.^[13][14][15] All-male groups may also exist.^[16] Some individuals are solitary, mostly males.^[17] Monkey groups live in overlapping home ranges, with little territoriality,^[13][14] in a fission-fusion society, with groups gathering at sleeping sites as night falls. There exist bands which arise when groups come together and slip apart yet sometimes groups may join to mate and groom.^[13][14][15] Groups gather during the day and travel together, but individuals only groom and play with those in their own group.^[15] One-male groups consist of 9–19 individuals, while bands can consist of as many as 60 individuals.^[13][17] One-male groups typically consist of three to 12 individuals, but can contain more.^[16] Serious aggression is uncommon among the monkeys but minor aggression does occur.^[18] Overall, members of the same bands are fairly tolerant of each other. A linear dominance hierarchy exists between females.^[14] Males of one-male groups can stay in their groups for six to eight years. Replacements in the resident males appear to occur without serious aggression.^[16] Upon reaching adulthood, males leave their natal groups and join all-male groups.^[13][17] Females also sometimes leave their natal groups, perhaps to avoid infanticide or inbreeding, reduce competition for food, or elevation of their social status.^[16][17]

Reproduction

Females become sexually mature at the age of five years. They experience sexual swelling, which involves the genitals becoming pink or reddened.^[16][19] At one site, matings largely take place between February and November, while births occur between March and May.^[20] Copulations tend to last for half a minute.^[14][16] The male will grab the female by the ankles or torso and mount her from behind.^[14] Both sexes will encourage mating, but they are not always successful.^[19] When soliciting, both sexes will make pouted faces. In addition, males will sometimes vocalize and females will present their backsides and shake their head from side to side.^{[13][19][20][12]} Mating pairs are sometimes harassed by subadults.^[19] Proboscis monkeys may also engage in mounting with no reproductive purpose, such as playful and same-sex mounting, and females will attempt to initiate copulation even after they have conceived.^[12] Gestation usually last 166–200 days or slightly more.^[20] Females tend to give birth at night or in the early morning. The mothers then eat the placenta and lick their infants clean.^[21] The young begin to eat solid foods at six weeks and are weaned at seven months old. The nose of a young male grows slowly until reaching adulthood. The mother will allow other members of her group to hold her infant.^[14][20][21] When a resident male in a one-male group is replaced, the infants are at risk of infanticide.^[22]

Communication

Proboscis monkeys are known to make various vocalizations. When communicating the status of group, males will emit honks. They have a special honk emitted towards infants, which is also used for reassurance. Males will also produce alarm calls to signal danger. Both sexes give threat calls, but each are different. In addition, females and immature individuals will emit so-called "female calls" when angry.^[23] Honks, roars and snarls are made during low-intensity agonistic encounters. Nonvocal displays include leaping-branch shaking, bare-teeth open mouth threats and erection in males, made in the same situations.^[14]

Ecology

Range and habitat

The proboscis monkey is endemic to the island of Borneo and can be found on all three nations that divide the island: Brunei, Indonesia, and Malaysia.^[24] It is most common in coastal areas and along rivers.^[13] This species is restricted to lowland habitats that may experience tides.^[25][26] It favors dipterocarp, mangrove and riverine forests.^[13] It can also be found in swamp forests, stunted swamp forests, rubber forests, rubber plantations, limestone hill forests, nypa swamps, nibong swamps, and tall swamp forests, tropical heath forests and steep cliffs.^[25] This species usually stays within at least a kilometer from a water source. It is perhaps the most aquatic of the primates and is a fairly good swimmer, capable of swimming up to 20 m (66 ft) underwater. It is known to swim across rivers.^[25] Aside from this, the proboscis monkey is largely arboreal and moves quadrupedally and by leaps.^[5] It is known to jump off branches and descend into water.^[14]

Feeding and activities

Sitting on tree

Juvenile, Labuk Bay, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia

Mother and baby, Labuk Bay, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia

As a seasonal folivore and frugivore, the proboscis monkey eats primarily fruit and leaves.^[14] It also eats flowers, seeds and insects to a lesser extent. At least 55 different plant species are consumed, "with a marked preference for Eugenia sp., Ganua motleyana and Lophopetalum javanicum".^[27] Young leaves are preferred over mature leaves and unripe fruits are preferred over ripe fruit.^[14] Being a seasonal eater, the proboscis monkey eats mostly fruit from January to May and mostly leaves from June to December.^[27] Groups usually sleep in adjacent trees.^[28] Monkeys tend to sleep near rivers, if they are nearby. Proboscis monkeys will start the day foraging and then rest further inland. Proboscis monkeys' daily activities consist of resting, traveling, feeding and keeping vigilant.^[14] Occasionally, they chew their cud to allow more efficient digestion and food intake.^[29] As night approaches, the monkeys move back near the river and forage again. Predators of the proboscis monkey include crocodiles, clouded leopards, eagles, monitor lizards and pythons. Monkeys will cross rivers at narrows or cross arboreally if possible. This may serve as predator avoidance.^[30]

Conservation status

The proboscis monkey is assessed as endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and listed in Appendix I of CITES. Its total population has decreased by more than 50% in the past 36–40 years to 2008 due to ongoing habitat loss because of logging and oil palm plantations, and hunting in some areas due to the species being treated as a delicacy, as well as its use in traditional Chinese medicine.^[12] The population is fragmented: the largest remaining populations are found in Kalimantan; there are far fewer in Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah.^[2] The proboscis monkey is protected by law in all regions of Borneo. In Malaysia, it is protected by a number of laws including the Wildlife Protection Act (federal law), the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998 (Chapter 26) and Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 (Sabah state law).
The proboscis monkey can be found in 16 protected areas: Danau Sentarum National Park, Gunung Palung National Park, Kendawangan Nature Reserve, Kutai National Park, Lesan Protection Forest, Muara Kaman Nature Reserve, Mandor Reserve and Tanjung Puting National Park in Indonesia; Bako National Park, Gunung Pueh Forest Reserve, Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve, Klias National Park, Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sungei Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary and Ulu Segama Reserve in Malaysia.^[2]

In human culture

In Indonesian the monkey is called monyet belanda ("Dutch monkey") or orang belanda ("Dutchman"), as Indonesians considered that the Dutch colonisers often had similarly large bellies




Nasalis larvatus

Wurmb, 1787

 


 
 Male




 

THE CAQUEREL'S SIFAKA LEMURS

Coquerel's sifaka (Propithecus coquereli) is a diurnal, medium-sized lemur of the sifaka genus Propithecus. It is native to Madagascar. Coquerel's sifaka was once considered to be a subspecies of Verreaux's sifaka, but was eventually granted full species level.

 

Description

Its dorsal pelage and tail are white, with maroon patches on the chest and portions of the limbs. The coat is generally dense. Its face is bare and black except for a distinctive patch of white fur along the bridge of the nose. Its naked ears are also black, and its eyes are yellow or orange.^[4][5] The bottom of the lemur's hands and feet are black, while the thighs, arms, and chest are a chocolate brown. Like all lemurs, Coquerel’s sifaka has a toothcomb, used for grooming and sometimes scraping fruit off a pit.^[6]

• 
• 
• 

  juvenile

Distribution

This species occurs at altitudes less than 300 ft in the dry deciduous forests of northwestern Madagascar, including coastal forests.^[7] It occurs from the Betsiboka River, up to the Maevarano River, and are common in large area between these rivers. Extensive surveys of the species' distribution conducted in 2009, 2010, and 2011 led to the confirmation of its presence in most forest fragments between these rivers.^[7] Nevertheless, its eastern distribution limits are unclear, between the Sofia and Bemarivo Rivers, the species has twice been reported to be absent (Table 1^[7]). Similarly, the southern part of the inter-river system between the Bemarivo and Betsiboka Rivers, where little is known about the presence of the species, requires surveys.^[7]

Map of P. coquereli distribution

Groups of this species have a home range area amounting to 4-9 ha.^[8] A 2014 work^[9] in Ankarafantsika National Park suggests that population densities range from 5 to 100 ind/km²) and significant (negative) effects of road and forest edge and/or a (positive) effect of river proximity on densities. The population size may be ~47,000 individuals in the Ankarafantsika National Park.^[9] However, the species is frequently seen around villages and in areas dominated by introduced tree species.^[7]

Diet

Coquerel's sifaka's herbivorous diet varies by season. In the wet season, it eats immature leaves, flowers, fruit, bark, and dead wood. In the dry season, it eats mature leaves and buds.^[10] It may browse nearly 100 plant species, but the majority of its feeding time is concentrated on about 10% of these.^[11] Since it has a very fibrous diet, Coquerel's sifaka has an enlarged cecum and extremely long colon that helps facilitate digestion.^[12] These lemurs spend 30-40% of their day foraging, especially in the morning, midday, and evening. Females often take leadership roles during foraging and exert their dominance by eating the preferred food or denying the males food until they are satisfied. These lemurs are beneficial to the environment because they aid seed dispersion. Captive Coquerel’s sifkas eat shining leaf sumac and mimosa.^[13]

Behaviour

Coquerel's sifaka lives in matriarchal groups of about three to 10 individuals.^[7]

Clinging to tree trunk

It is diurnal and primarily arboreal. Much is known about its behavior from observations in the wild and in captivity.^[12]

Social structure

Coquerel’s sifakas spend the majority of their time in areas of just 2-3 ha. However, they can live in areas with 4-8 ha. Though their home range may overlap with other groups of sifakas, they avoid each other to avoid aggression.^[14] When friendly Coquerel's sifakas meet, they greet by rubbing their noses together.
Matriarchy is rare in the animal kingdom as a whole, but common among lemurs. A matriarchal system is particularly pronounced in Coquerel's sifaka. All adult and even most subadult females are dominant over males.^[12]
Females have preferential access to food and other resources. When a female is browsing an area or tree, a male waits for her to finish before he moves there to feed. If he gets in the way of the female, she may lunge, smack, or bite him. The male then exhibits submissive behavior by rolling his tail between his legs, chattering softly, and baring his teeth in a grimace before quickly leaping out of her way.^[12]
When mating, Coquerel's sifaka commonly practices polyandry. A female may choose to mate with only one male, but most often she mates with several, from other visiting groups, as well as from her own. Males compete for access to sexually receptive females. However, the winner of a fight will not necessarily be the one she selects for breeding. The criteria by which she chooses a mate are evidently more complex.^[6]
In some other animals, polyandrous mating is thought to raise the chances of successful fertilization, but this does not appear to be the case in Coquerel's sifaka. Instead, polyandry is thought to be advantageous because when paternity is confused, the likelihood of male infanticide decreases.^[11]

Reproduction

Female Coquerel's sifakas choose their mate(s) whether from intragroup males or males from outside groups.^[15] They have synchronized estrus in January and February.^[12] Infants are born in June and July after a gestation period around 162 days. Normally, one infant is born during Madagascar’s dry season (June–July). Newborn lemurs have an average weight of 100 g, though it can vary between 85 and 115 g. An infant clings to its mother's chest until about a month or so after birth, then transfers to her back.
Infants are weaned and become fully independent around 6 months of age. Adult size is reached at 1-5 years.^[10]
Males and females become sexually mature around two- to three-and-a-half years old, though some do not have their first offspring until they are six. Hybrids have been known to occur with some species. One is P. verreauxi.^[16]

Locomotion

Coquerel's sifaka in the wild at Anjajavy Forest

The terrestrial locomotion of Coquerel's sifaka

In the trees, Coquerel's sifaka moves by vertical clinging and leaping. It maintains an upright posture when at rest or when propelling itself between branches or trunks. This style of arboreal locomotion is characteristic of most, if not all, lemurs.^[12] This particular lemur can leap from tree to tree up to 35 feet.^[17] It has the extraordinary ability to leap to spiny trees and precisely place its hands and feet so that it will not hurt itself.
Occasionally, Coquerel's sifaka descends to the ground to cross open spaces. Its terrestrial locomotion is unique to its species. Like Verreaux's sifaka, it moves in a series of bipedal hops with its arms thrown out to the sides for balance. However, whereas Verreaux's sifaka bounds sideways and crosses its legs one in front of the other, the Coquerel's sifaka bounds forward, like a kangaroo. It leans in the direction of its jump to achieve forward momentum.^[10]
A study at Duke University’s Primate Center examined feeding behaviors of captive sifakas to determine their handedness. Given chopped fruits and vegetables, adult male and female sifakas showed a predominant preference for left-handedness, while younger sifakas alternated hands to grab food. Coquerel’s sifakas gain dexterity and hand preference with age, diverging only slightly by gender.^[18]

Communication

Coquerel's sifaka uses a variety of auditory, visual, and olfactory signals to communicate.^[19] ‘Sifaka' is a Malagasy name that comes from the lemurs’ characteristic “shif-auk” sound.^[20] The first syllable is a low growl that "bubbles" in the throat, and the second is a clicking sound like an amplified hiccup. The "shih-fak" call is used to warn fellow group members of a potential ground predator or to threaten enemies and intruders. Coquerel's sifaka is highly territorial.^[21]
Contact calls used when groups are traveling include soft grunts and growls. If a sifaka is separated from its group members, it may emit a long, loud wail to find them.^[11]
One visual signal which Coquerel's sifaka uses to communicate is a rapid backward jerking of the head. This is a threatening action that may accompany the "shih-fak" call.^[10]
Sifakas also rely heavily on scent for communication. Males typically scent-mark using a gland in their throats, which they will rub back and forth along branches. Females are more likely to scent-mark with anogenital glands. It is not entirely clear what information is conveyed in these scents, beyond the demarcation of territory.^[11]

Economic importance

Coquerel’s sifakas, like many lemurs, have been studied to help scientists learn about the evolutionary history of primates, including humans. Since they are so endangered and hunted in Madagascar, the ecotourism industry has benefited greatly because of the sifaka and brings people into the country. Scientists study the sifaka to get insight of evolution, and they have been the subject of those researching evolution of color vision, paternal care, matriarchal primate societies, and causes of speciation.^[12]

Conservation status and threats

Though its populations are thought to be widely distributed, Coquerel's sifaka is found in only two protected areas in Madagascar - the Ankarafantsika National Park and the Bora Special Reserve. It is an endangered species, according to the IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species, and it is listed in CITES Appendix I.^[2] The principal threats to its existence are deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and hunting pressure. The locals often clear trees to produce new farming land, especially in the marshes where rice can be grown. In northwestern Madagascar, deforestation results from annual burning to create new pastureland for livestock. Trees are also cut for the production of charcoal.^[14]
Many local Malagasy traditions prohibit hunting of Coquerel's sifaka. One such taboo derives from a legend of a sifaka saving the life of a boy who has fallen out of a tree. The story goes like this:

"A little boy heads into the forest to find some honey. He spots a hive in a high tree and he ascends it. As he is about to reach in to collect the honey, he is immediately attacked by bees. The surprise causes the boy to lose his grip on the tree branch, and he falls to what is almost certainly his death. As the boy plummets toward the earth, a large lemur suddenly appears, swoops in, and catches the boy, saving his life. Ever since that day, lemurs became sacred to the Malagasy and it is said that anyone who kills one shall have extreme misfortune."^[22]

These protective taboos are breaking down with cultural erosion and immigration.^[14]
This lemur is now hunted for bushmeat, but humans are not the only threat. The introduction of foreign species, especially cats and dogs, has hurt the Coquerel’s sifaka. Projects for Animal Welfare encourages the neutering and spaying of the cats and dogs on the island to protect the native wildlife.^[1] Even the protected areas where the Coquerel's sifaka occurs offer it little protection. It is hunted even within Ankarafantsika, and the Bora Special Reserve has become seriously degraded.^[10]

Predation

Many animals prey on Coquerel’s sifakas. Hawks and other raptors attack them from above, while constrictor snakes and the fossa threaten them from the ground. Also, many introduced predators such as feral dogs, African cats, European cats, mongooses and civets prey on them. However, of all these creatures, humans are the biggest hazard. Though killing the lemurs was taboo,^[12] Coquerel’s sifaka see humans now as a threat and may give out an alarm call to warn the others.^[12]
Unfortunately, some of these lemurs are unaware of the danger humans pose and will approach humans on the ground. To intimidate predators they do recognize, the lemurs announce the threat with a warning call, and stare at the threat, shaking their heads back and forth.^[23]

Cultural references

The lemur on the PBS Kids television program Zoboomafoo is based on a Coquerel's sifaka^[12] named Jovian. Jovian lived at the Duke Lemur Center, where the show was originally filmed until he died from kidney failure at the age of 20 on November 10, 2014.^[24] His son Charlemagne, affectionately known as "Charlie", lives at the center, with his family group of other Coquerel’s sifakas.<sup>[25]



Propithecus coquereli</sup>

A. Grandidier, 1867^[3]