Box turtle is the common name for several species of turtle. It may refer to those of the genusCuora or Pyxidea, which are the Asian box turtles, or more commonly to species of the genus Terrapene, the North American box turtles. They are largely characterized by having a shell shaped like a dome, which is hinged at the bottom, allowing the animal to close its shell tightly to escape predators. Furthermore, the two genera are very different in habitat, behavior and appearance, and are not even classified in the same family. Even though box turtles became very popular pets, their needs in captivity are complex and the capture of turtles can have serious detrimental effects on the wild population.[1]
The box turtle commonly lives over twenty years, with verified cases of lifespans exceeding 40 to 50 years. There have been unverified cases of box turtles living for a hundred years and more.
Box turtles are omnivorous. Their eagle eyes and keen sense of smell help them find foods such as snails, insects, berries, fungi, slugs, worms, flowers, fish, frogs, salamanders, various rodents, snakes, birds, eggs, among other things. During their first five to six years of life they are primarily carnivorous. Adults tend to be mostly herbivores, but do not feed on leafy greens.[2] Box turtles are known to feed on animals found dead on roadways, victims of being struck by a car or other rolling vehicle.[citation needed] Hatchlings and young turtles need more protein and prefer a carnivorous diet, to which, as they grow, they incorporate more and more plants.[1]
A recent study conducted by Davidson College revealed, among other things, that a box turtle can make sounds with its jaws that exceed 75 dB. This sound can be used to scare away predators and even also as some kind of mating call. [citation needed]
While it appears that most matings of Terrapene carolina occur in one-on-one encounters, there are occasions when two males will compete for access to the same female.
These encounters, which almost never amount to mortal combat, consist
of head-butting, shoving, and perhaps attempts to overturn the other. It
is presumed that eventually one of the males exhausts himself and
withdraws from the field while the other gains access to the female.
Mating occurs during nesting season beginning in the late boreal spring
and ceasing at the end of the summer months.[3]
Asian box turtles are in serious danger of extinction in their
habitat because they are part of the food base of many Asian countries
such as China,
where they are captured for local food markets despite captive breeding
farms. North American box turtles, on the other hand, are endangered by
habitat destruction. The forests converted to farmland greatly reduced the number of turtles in many states. The remaining land is often fragmented with highways and urban projects, destroying the animals' habitat.
In an attempt to cross man-made additions, turtles are often killed by
cars, animals, and other hazards. They are also facing population
decline from a necrotizing bacterial infection first found in this
species April 2011.[4]
Another serious treatment of these animals in North America is
the capture and sale of hatchling box turtles from the wild. A 3-year
study conducted in Texas indicated that more than 7000 box turtles were taken from the wild for commercial trade. A similar study in Louisiana
found that over a 41-month period, about 30,000 box turtles were taken
from the wild for resale. Once captured, the turtles are often kept in
poor conditions, in which more than half die. Those that live long
enough to be sold usually suffer from conditions such as malnutrition, dehydration, and infection.[5][6]
Indiana
and many other states created strict laws against the collection of
hatchling turtles from the wild. In many states it is illegal to keep
them without a special permit. Collecting wild-hatched box turtles can
cause irreversible damage to populations, because these turtles have a
low reproductive rate, as they take a long time to find a mate.
Most turtle and sea-turtle societies do not recommend the use of
turtles as pets for young children despite their popularity as such. Box
turtles are easily stressed if touched excessively and require more
care than is generally thought. Box turtles can be easily injured by dogs and cats
so special care must be taken to protect them from household pets and
neighborhood animals. Box turtles require an enclosed outdoor location,
consistent sun exposure and a varied diet. Without this, a turtle's growth can be stunted and its immune system weakened.
Finding box turtles in the wild and taking them as pets, even for
a short period, can have detrimental effects. Box turtles want to stay
within the area where they were hatched. If one is moved more than half a
mile from its territory, it may not find its way back, but may spend
years searching for it. This exposes the animal to danger and also
disrupts the breeding
cycle of which it would otherwise have been a part.
While box turtles are very popular as pets, it is important that they
are preserved in the right matter. Keeping them in a more northern area
where they can survive the best in ecological and physiological factor
to not damage their way of living.[7]
The moustached tamarin (Saguinus mystax) is a New World monkey and a species of tamarin. The moustached tamarin is named for the lack of coloring in the facial hair surrounding their mouth, appearing similar to a moustache. As with all New World monkeys, the moustached tamarin is found only in areas of Central and South America.
Moustached tamarins have a lifespan of about 20 years.[citation needed] They are small, weighing 500 to 600 grams, and range in length from 30 to 92 centimeters, with adult females larger than males.[3][4]
Moustached tamarin monkeys are characterized by white, curly hair around their mouth, similar to a moustache.[5] Their face is flat with almond-like shaped eyes.[5] Their ears are furry and large, and they have long, silky, body hair.[5]
They have a brownish-black body with a white moustache and white nose.
They have tegula, which are claw-like nails, on each digit except their
big toe.[citation needed]
These claws allow them to easily cling to trees while they feed. They
have conical or spatulate incisors, which are used for cutting food, and
are smaller than their canines.[4]
The lingual and labial sides of their incisors have a thick layer of
enamel. Unlike most New World Monkeys, the moustached tamarin monkey has
non-opposable thumbs and lacks a prehensile tail.[5]
Heterozygous females, which make up about 60% of the female tamarin population, have trichromatic vision, while the remaining moustached tamarin population have dichromatic vision.[3] Trichromatic vision is the capacity to see a broader range of color due to the presence of three color receptors in the retina, at the back of the eye, allowing them to distinguish between greens, blues and reds.[3]
Humans, as well as most species of Old World Monkeys, have trichromatic
visual abilities; however, some female New World monkeys do as well.
Dichromatic vision is a form of color vision in which only two of the
primary colors are perceived.[3]
Trichromatic vision is an evolutionary adaptation that enables females
to more easily find and identify fruit. Color vision is a contributing
factor for leadership selection in troops.
Moustached tamarins are inhabitants of tropical rainforests in Brazil, Bolivia and Peru.[4] They live in arid, upland forests in the Amazonian lowland, mostly occupying higher tree branches. The home range of moustached tamarins is between 25 and 50 hectares.[3]
Ecology
Moustached tamarin in Serra do Divisor National Park, Acre, Brazil
Moustached tamarins are omnivorous, frugivorous and insectivorous. Their diet mainly consists of fruits, nectar, gum exudates, invertebrates and small vertebrates. Invertebrates include katydids, stick grasshoppers, and spiders.[4]
Vertebrates include lizards and frogs. Gum feeding is seasonal, however
it is a dietary staple during dry and early wet seasons when other
resources are scarce. Exudates supplement nutrients and balance mineral
intake; which prevent the species from experiencing a range of
detrimental effects from a low-calcium and high-phosphorus insectivorous
diet. They display a highly opportunistic foraging pattern, and the
ratio and variety of their comestibles depend on the availability in
their geographical location. Moustached tamarins select trees by the
amount of nectar they yield, rather than proximity to their home range.
This higher volume of nectar makes the chosen trees more reliable
because it allows them to feed for longer periods. Their remarkable spatial memory
allows them to quickly recall the location of fruiting trees. Spatial
memory is vital because it aids in the exploitation of a widely
scattered set of feeding sites and minimizes effort in foraging.[4]
The moustached tamarin monkey is a crucial seed disperser for
many plant species as a result of their diverse diet. They spread the
seeds of fruits they ingest, indirectly impacting forest regeneration
and maintenance. They are opportunistic feeders, utilizing a wide range
of plant resources, allowing them to disperse a variety of seed species,
providing significant benefit to their ecosystem.[4]
Moustached tamarins are territorial, however, they sometimes join with groups of brown-mantled tamarins (Leontocebus fuscicollis) and Geoffroy's saddle-back tamarin (Leontocebus nigrifrons).[3]
These species can cohabit because they have varying locomotor types,
hunting techniques, support preference, food selection, and reside in
different strata of their forest habitat.[4]
The brown-mantled tamarin and the moustached tamarin do not compete for
the same resources. Sharing territory with another species facilitates
predator avoidance, increasing survival chances for both groups. Having
more eyes and ears provides greater protection.
Moustached tamarins are arboreal, diurnal,[3] and precocial.[citation needed]
Tamarins walk and run on all fours, similar to squirrels and use their
claws for stability. The moustached tamarin monkey exercises three types
of locomotion. Symmetrical quadrupedalism is the most frequently used locomotion type, followed by asymmetric quadrupedalism, and leaping.[4] The kind of leap depends on the layer of the forest they occupy. In the lower canopy “trunk-to-trunk” leaps are performed.[3] These are jumps that are short and quick, only reaching a length of 1 to 2 meters.[3]
While standing on a medium or large-sized trunk, they propel themselves
into the air and land on their front limbs on another trunk. They
perform “bounding” leaps which allow them to cross between discontinuous
trees, extending their legs farther out, reaching up to 2 meters.[3]
In the high canopy, they perform “acrobatic” leaps. These are longer
leaps, reaching 5 meters or more, used to travel between treetops.[3] While in the air, they use their tail to decelerate their body before landing on the crown of a nearby tree.
Moustached tamarin monkeys select densely foliated areas for
resting and sleeping to best camouflage themselves because their small
size makes them an easy target. Their main tactic is to avoid predation
by attracting as little attention as possible. Their predators include
eagles and other birds of prey, snakes, tayras, jaguarundis, ocelots and other wild cats.[4]
Social grooming can be used to develop bonds. The moustached
tamarins use their claws to detangle and comb one another's hair and
remove parasites and dirt with their teeth and tongue.[3]
Social grooming is not equally exercised by members and the amount of
grooming services given and received depends on the social position of
the individual.
Scent marking is used to identify territory boundaries and to communicate with others.[3] Females practice scent marking more frequently than males because it is also used in mate selection.[3] The three types of scent marking are circumanal marking, suprapubic marking and sternal marking.[5] Circumanal marking is the most commonly used type of scent marking.
Visual communication includes facial expressions, gestures,
tonguing, and head-flicking. Tonguing is when a moustached tamarin moves
its tongue across its lips. Head-flicking is when a moustached tamarin
rapidly moves its head in an upward motion. Tonguing and head-flicking
often co-occur and are used to communicate recognition, curiosity or
anger.[citation needed]
Group sizes are usually 4-8 individuals, excluding infants, and each group usually contains 1 or 2 adult females.[3]
However, groups have been observed to reach up to 15 individuals and
solitary individuals have been encountered. Routinely, groups of
moustached tamarins leave early in the morning to forage for food. They
do not feed simultaneously. One of the adults positions themselves near
the feeding site and scans the surroundings for predators to protect the
group during mealtimes. They then retire at night in highly foliated
areas to protect themselves from predators during slumber.[3]
There
is often strife between neighboring groups of moustached tamarins due
to limited food resources, especially near large feeding trees.[3] Vocal battles can arise, with long calls that consist of short syllables at a high frequency.[6] This type of conflict occurs between groups that are 25 meters or more apart.[6] Fights can be more aggressive however, often including alarm calls, visual contact, scent marking and a series of chases and retreats.[6] Adult males attack, inducing combative and loud vocalizations, while subadults chase one another.[3]
Subsequently, there is a period of calm, and both groups forage for
food and subadults examine the opposing group for mating opportunities.[3]
The frequency of aggressive encounters increases during the breeding
season and the majority of copulations occur during or directly after an
aggressive encounter.[6]
Vocalizations
allow moustached tamarins to distinguish between individuals, organize
group movements, and ensure all members are accounted for. If
individuals become separated, individuals of the same group will produce
2 to 3 second long vocalizations to indicate their location.[4] These calls consist of repeated short, frequency-modulated syllables ranging from 8 to 12 kilohertz.[4]
In the morning, moustached tamarins make calls to each other to
coordinate movement for the day towards specific foraging sites. Young
tamarins also make vocalizations while they run and chase each other
during play.
The reproduction season of the moustached tamarin monkey is November to March, during which the oldest female reproduces.[4] Females go into oestrus for about 17 days.[3] Their gestation period is about 145 days, after which females give birth.[4]
Other members of the group help to take care of the infants, allowing
the female to give birth more than once a year. The eldest female
frequently bears twins because they ovulate multiple ova during each
reproductive cycle.[3]
The twins can be up to a quarter of the mother's size at birth. Females
reach reproductive maturity at about 480 days, and males at 540 days.[4] Both sexes migrate to a different group in adulthood to avoid the risk of inbreeding.[3] Moustached tamarins practice a variety of mating systems: polyandry, polygyny or polygynandry.[3]
The mothers often receive help from up to 4 or 5 other members of the
group. In polyandrous groups, the alpha male tolerates the presence of
other males who can provide infant-care.[3] Not having enough helpers can sometimes lead to infanticide by the mother.[3]
The population trend for the moustached tamarin monkey is decreasing; however, the IUCN red list categorizes the moustache tamarin as least concerned.[7]
They have demonstrated an ability to adapt to disturbed habitats and
proximity to human settlements. They can acclimate well to changes in
environmental conditions and their ecosystem. Habitat destruction
remains an inevitable threat to their population as for all species
living in the Amazonian rainforest. However, their ability to adapt
gives hope that this factor will not severely affect their population
numbers.
Moustached
tamarin monkeys are economically significant because they are used
extensively in biomedical research, like other tamarin species. They
have been used in the development of the hepatitis A vaccine.[citation needed]
Geoffroy's tamarin (Saguinus geoffroyi), also known as the Panamanian, red-crested or rufous-naped tamarin, is a tamarin, a type of small monkey, found in Panama and Colombia. It is predominantly black and white, with a reddish nape. Diurnal,
Geoffroy's tamarin spends most of its time in trees, but does come down
to the ground occasionally. It lives in groups that most often number
between three and five individuals, and generally include one or more
adults of each sex. It eats a variety of foods, including insects, plant exudates,
fruits and other plant parts. Insects and fruits account for the
majority of its diet, but exudates are also important. But since its
teeth are not adapted for gouging trees to get to the sap, it can only
eat exudates when they are easily available.
Although a variety of reproductive methods are used, the most
common is for a single adult female in the group to be reproductively
active and to mate with multiple adult males in the group. After a gestation
period of about 145 days, she gives birth to either a single infant or
twins. Males contribute significantly to care of the infants. Sexual
maturity is reached at about 2 years, and it can live up to 13 years.
Geoffroy's tamarin is classified as being "near threatened" by the IUCN.
Like the other tamarins and marmosets, Geoffroy's tamarin is a New World monkey classified within the family Callitrichidae.[2] In 2001, Colin Groves included the Callitrichids in the family Cebidae, which also includes capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys, but in 2009 Anthony Rylands and Russell Mittermeier reverted to older classifications which considered Callitrichidae a separate family.[1][2] It is a member the genus Saguinus, the genus containing most tamarins.[1][2] There are no recognized subspecies.[1] In 1977, Philip Hershkovitz classified Geoffroy's tamarin as a subspecies of the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus), which resides exclusively in Colombia, based on fur coloration, cranial and mandibular morphology, and ear size.[5] However, more recent research indicates that the two taxa differ sufficiently to be considered separate species.[6][7] According to genetic analyses, the two species diverged approximately 1.2 million years ago.[8]
In common with other callitrichids (tamarins and marmosets), Geoffroy's tamarin is a small monkey.[9] With a length of between 225 and 240 millimetres (8.9 and 9.4 in), excluding the tail,[10] it is the smallest Central American monkey.[9] The tail length is between 314 and 386 millimetres (12.4 and 15.2 in).[10] Males have an average weight of 486 grams (17.1 oz), and females are slightly larger on average, with an average weight of 507 grams (17.9 oz).[10] The fur on its back is variegated black and yellow, with pale legs, feet and chest.[11][12] Its face is nearly bare, but the head has reddish fur with a triangle-shaped patch in the front of the head.[11] The tail is chestnut-red and has a black tip.[11][12]
Like all callitrichids, Geoffroy's tamarin is diurnal and arboreal.[12] Unlike some other New World monkeys, it does come down to the ground occasionally.[13]
This is normally done only in special circumstances, such as to acquire
certain foods or to get to a tree it cannot otherwise reach.[14] Group size is generally between three and nine monkeys, with three to five being most common.[10] Groups often consist of more than one adult of each sex.[15] Adults of both sexes migrate between groups.[15] Groups show some degree of territorial defense.[9] Population densities on Barro Colorado Island
in Panama range between 3.6 and 5.7 monkeys per square kilometer, but
in other areas the population density can be as much as 20 to 30 monkeys
per square kilometer.[10] On average, Geoffroy's tamarin ranges 2061 meters per day.[10] Home range size varies between 9.4 hectares and 32 hectares.[3]
Communication occurs both through vocalization and by visual gestures.[14] Vocalizations that have been recorded include whistles, twitters, trills, loud or soft sharp notes, sneezes and long rasps.[10] Body postures and displays that reveal more of the white coloration, such as standing on hind legs and piloerection, tend to be associated with aggression.[14] Females often signal willingness to mate by rapidly coiling their tails.[14]
Geoffroy's tamarin was previously considered a subspecies of the similar cottontop tamarin, shown above.
Unlike squirrels,
which often move through the canopy by climbing and descending vertical
tree trunks, Geoffroy's tamarin generally avoids large vertical
supports during travel. It prefers to move across thin branches,
ascending and descending by long leaps. To the extent Geoffroy's
tamarin uses large vertical supports for travel, it uses them most often
for ascending rather than descending.[16]
Geoffroy's tamarin generally avoids sympatric small and medium size monkey species such as the white-headed capuchin and the Panamanian night monkey.
Avoidance is spatial with respect to the capuchin, and temporal in the
case of the night monkey, since Geoffroy's tamarin is only active
during daylight hours and the Panamanian night monkey is only active at
night. Geoffroy's tamarin is rarely observed in the vicinity of squirrels,
although this appears to be the result of the squirrels avoiding
interactions with the larger tamarins. Geoffroy's tamarin generally
attempts to escape when birds of prey approach, regardless of whether the bird presents a true danger. However, the tamarins ignore one bird of prey, the double-toothed kite, which sometimes follows the tamarins in an apparent effort to feed on small animals disturbed by the tamarins.[14]
The diet of Geoffroy's tamarin is similar to some species of tyrant flycatcher
birds in Panama, and they share similar vocalizations. The tamarins
may use the flycatcher calls to help find favorable food sources. The
flycatchers and tamarins have different patterns of activity, which
minimizes competition for similar food sources. The flycatchers are
most active shortly after dawn and tend to rest in the middle of the
day. The tamarins do not become active until about 45 minutes after
full daylight, but remain active for most of the remaining daylight
hours until an hour or less before sunset.[14]
Geoffroy's tamarin has a varied diet that includes fruits, insects, exudates (gums and saps), and green plant parts.[10] The diet varies seasonally.[10] A study by Paul Garber estimated that the diet was made up of 40% insects, 38% fruit, 14% exudates (almost entirely from Anacardium excelsumcashew trees), and 8% other items.[10][16]
Another study, on Barro Colorado Island, showed 60% fruit, 30% insects
and 10% green plant parts, including large amounts of elephant ear tree (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) sap.[10] Another study showed a diet about equally split between insects (mostly grasshoppers) and fruit.[10]
Unlike marmosets, tamarins do not have dentition adapted for gouging
trees, so Geoffroy's tamarin eats sap only when it is easily accessible.[3][16] It generally hunts for insects by making quick movements on thin, flexible supports.[16] In contrast, it generally feeds on sap while clinging to large vertical tree trunks.[16]
In one study, Geoffroy's tamarin drank water from the corollas of Ochroma limonesis flowers.[10] However, it is believed to also drink from tree holes, similar to other tamarin species.[10]
Geoffroy's tamarin can give birth throughout the year, but the birthing peak is from April to June.[3][10] A single infant or twins can be born, although it is not uncommon for one of the twins to perish within the first few months.[17] The gestation period is believed to be about 145 days, similar to the cottontop tamarin.[3][10] The interbirth period ranges between 154 and 540 days, with an average of 311 days.[10] The longer interbirth periods occur after twins.[10] Infants weigh between 40 and 50 grams (1.4 and 1.8 oz) and are born fully furred.[10]
The infant's fur is colored differently than the parents'; the infant
has black fur on the body and tail, with a beige blaze and white face.[10] The infant coloration reduces the visibility of white, which is associated with aggressive displays by the species.[14]
Both polyandrous and polygynous mating occurs, and males contribute heavily to parental care.[17]
But typically, only one adult female in a group is reproductively
active, and reproductively active females mate with multiple males if
given the opportunity.[15] Males carry and groom infants more than females do.[10] Older siblings may also contribute to infant care, although infants prefer to be carried by their parents than their siblings.[10] Infants become mobile at 2 to 5 weeks, and begin eating solid food at 4 to 7 weeks.[10] They are independent at 10 to 18 weeks and are fully weaned at 15 to 25 weeks.[10] Geoffroy's tamarin becomes sexually mature at about 2 years, and can live up to 13 years.[11]
Geoffroy's tamarin lives in various types of forest, including primary and secondary forest, and dry and moist tropical forest.[11] In Panama, it prefers secondary forests with moderate humidity.[14] It occurs in central and eastern Panama, with the range extending slightly west of the Panama Canal zone and has been observed as far west as Altos de Campana National Park.[6] It is less common on the Atlantic coast of Panama than the Pacific coast, and is only abundant on the Atlantic coast in areas near the Canal zone that have been modified by man.[6][14] It occurs in Metropolitan Natural Park, an urban park within Panama City.[18] In Colombia, it occurs on the Pacific coast west of the Andes, south to the Rio San Juan.[6] The eastern boundary of its range in Colombia was once thought to be the Rio Atrato, but has been reported further east, including the Las Orquídeas National Natural Park.[6] Older sources sometimes report the species occurring in southern Costa Rica, but these are most likely erroneous.[6][19]
The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies Geoffroy's tamarin as being near threatened.[3]
The main threat is deforestation, which is causing population declines
in some areas despite its ability to adapt to some modifications of its
habitat.[3] It is also sometimes hunted and captured for the pet trade in Panama.[3] A 1985 study in Panama concluded that Geoffroy tamarin population densities are higher in areas where human access is limited.[20]
Human activity in Panama can have both positive and negative effects on
Geoffroy's-tamarin populations. While hunting decreases the
population, cutting mature forest for agriculture provides more areas of
secondary growth, which is beneficial for the tamarin.[14]
The pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor), sometimes referred to as the Brazilian bare-faced tamarin, is a critically endangered species of primate found in a restricted area of the BrazilianAmazon Rainforest. It was named the mascot of Manaus, Brazil in 2005.[3][5] The species is endangered due to the increasing size of the city of Manaus which is encroaching on their native habitat.
The pied tamarin's body measures 20.8–28.3 cm.; including the tail
it measures 33.5–42.0 cm. The tamarin has a brown lower body and a
fluffy white upper body. Their face is black and hairless, the reason
for its nickname: the Brazilian bare-faced tamarin.
The pied tamarin does not have nails, but instead has claws that
they adapted in order to quickly scale trees in order to retrieve food
or escape predators. These nails also allow the tamarin to dig into tree
bark and extract sap which they then eat.[5]
Males weigh 428 grams (n = 4).[8] Its life expectancy is approximately 10 years in the wild.[9]
Individuals live in groups of 2 to 15 members with little intra-group competition. Average group size in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke is 4.8 individuals per group (n = 41),[10] and other areas around Manaus reported mean group sizes of 6.19 ± 2.62 (n = 46).[11] A tamarin group has a home range of 10-100 ha.
Tamarins are unlike most other mammals in the sense that the
females are considered to be the dominant gender. In each group of
individuals only one female is selected to breed and reproduce children.
This individual is called the "Alpha Female" and reproduction by other females of the group is behaviorally suppressed.[12]
The gestation lasts 140–170 days and mothers typically give birth to
twins. Although they generally give birth to twins the fact that only
one female per group can produce offspring is a major cause in their
reduced population size. Young tamarins are cared for primarily by the
father and turned over to the mother only to nurse; however, the entire
group helps with the care of the younglings that the alpha female
birthed.[5]
Tamarins are omnivorous, their diet consisting of fruit, flowers, nectar, insects, spiders, small vertebrates and bird eggs.[6]
Its natural predators are small cats, birds of prey, and snakes. In
urban settings like Manaus, the main predators are domestic and feral
cats and dogs. Because of the destruction of its natural habitat, the
species is at risk which is why the species has landed on the IUCN red
list for endangered species as well as the top 25 most endangered
primates list in Brazil.[13]
As of 2015, the pied tamarin is rated critically endangered by the IUCN Red List. The pied tamarin's population is expected to decline 80% by 2033 due to anthropogenic threats, competition with golden-handed tamarin (Saguinus midas) and disease. Within the Manaus area, pied tamarins are threatened by domestic and feral
cats and dogs, electrocution from power lines, and the pet trade.
Additionally, rural settlement and increasing livestock agriculture
continue to encroach upon and degrade the pied tamarin's remaining
habitat.[3]
The pied tamarin is protected in some parts of its range, such as in Sumaúma State Park (52 ha), Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve (18,240 ha) and less than half of Puranga Conquista Sustainable Development Reserve
(157,807 ha). The Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (CIGS)(115,000
ha) is an important protected area for the species, however it is not a
conservation area but a military jungle training facility and so the
area's status is uncertain.[3]
This organism is endangered due to its severe threat of species
encroaching on its habitat and this will cause various issues to the
ecosystem and environment.
Both European and American zoos and conservation services have
pitched in financially to help out in saving the pied tamarin species.[13]
While there are only two areas in the world that are protected for the
tamarins, and both are under 50 hectares, the conservation efforts have
allowed for the reforestation of these places and the slow and uncertain
return of the tamarins native habitat.[14]
There is an established captive breeding program for the pied tamarin and an official studbook.[15] As of 2009, there are 172 pied tamarins in captivity and all are registered property of the Brazilian government.[3]
Unfortunately for the tamarins, their captive breeding success rate is
limited and thus it is difficult to resurrect the population
artificially.[16]
The tamarins live nearby the rapidly growing city of Manaus,
and as the city's area increases in size, the tamarins habitat
disappears. When they can avoid the busy automobile traffic and the
electric power lines, the pied tamarin reside in the small sections of
forest that still remain in Manaus.[17]
Being
an omnivore, the pied tamarins diet consists highly of plants. They
pick up plant seeds when they eat and disperse them around their
environment, thus bolstering their ecosystem.[7]
They also dine on small animals, which keeps the insect and amphibian
populations in check. With the declining tamarin population, the issue
becomes bigger than just the primates, but now turns into an ecosystem
issue. There is no way to know for certain how the loss of the pied
tamarin population will affect the Amazonian ecosystem, but there almost
undoubtedly will be effects.[5]
