THE BIRDS- OF - PARADISE

The birds-of-paradise are members of the family Paradisaeidae of the order Passeriformes. The majority of species are found in eastern Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and eastern Australia. The family has 42 species in 15 genera.^[1] The members of this family are perhaps best known for the plumage of the males of the sexually dimorphic species (the majority), in particular the highly elongated and elaborate feathers extending from the beak, wings, tail or head. For the most part they are confined to dense rainforest habitat. The diet of all species is dominated by fruit and to a lesser extent arthropods. The birds-of-paradise have a variety of breeding systems, ranging from monogamy to lek-type polygamy.
A number of species are threatened by hunting and habitat loss.

 

Taxonomy and systematics

For many years the birds-of-paradise were treated as being closely related to the bowerbirds. Today while both are treated as being part of the Australasian lineage Corvida, the two are now thought to be only distantly related. The closest evolutionary relatives of the birds-of-paradise are the crow and jay family Corvidae, the monarch flycatchers Monarchidae and the Australian mudnesters Struthideidae.^[2]
A 2009 study examining the mitochondrial DNA of all species to examine the relationships within the family and to its nearest relatives estimated that the family emerged 24 million years ago, earlier than previous estimates. The study identified five clades within the family, and placed the split between the first clade, which contains the monogamous manucodes and paradise-crow, and all the other birds-of-paradise, to be 10 million years ago. The second clade includes the parotias and the King of Saxony bird-of-paradise. The third clade provisionally contains several genera, including Seleucidis, the Drepanornis sicklebills, Semioptera, Ptiloris and Lophorina, although some of these are questionable. The fourth clade includes the Epimachus sicklebills, Paradigalla and the astrapias. The final clade includes the Cicinnurus and the Paradisaea birds-of-paradise.^[3]
The exact limits of the family have been the subject of revision as well. The three species of satinbird (the genera Cnemophilus and Loboparadisea) were treated as a subfamily of the birds-of-paradise, Cnemophilinae. In spite of differences in the mouth, foot morphology and nesting habits they remained in the family until a 2000 study moved them to a separate family closer to the berrypeckers and longbills (Melanocharitidae).^[4] The same study found that the Macgregor's bird-of-paradise was actually a member of the large Australasian honeyeater family. In addition to these three species, a number of systematically enigmatic species and genera have been considered potential members of this family. The two species in the genus Melampitta, also from New Guinea, have been linked with the birds-of-paradise,^[5] but their relationships remain uncertain, more recently being linked with the Australian mudnesters.^[2] The silktail of Fiji has been linked with the birds-of-paradise many times since its discovery, but never formally assigned to the family. Recent molecular evidence now places the species with the fantails.^[6]


Species

genus: Lycocorax Paradise-crow, Lycocorax pyrrhopterus genus: Manucodia Glossy-mantled manucode, Manucodia ater Jobi manucode, Manucodia jobiensis Crinkle-collared manucode, Manucodia chalybatus Curl-crested manucode, Manucodia comrii genus: Phonygammus Trumpet manucode, Phonygammus keraudrenii genus: Paradigalla Long-tailed paradigalla, Paradigalla carunculata Short-tailed paradigalla, Paradigalla brevicauda genus: Astrapia Arfak astrapia, Astrapia nigra Splendid astrapia, Astrapia splendidissima Ribbon-tailed astrapia, Astrapia mayeri Princess Stephanie's astrapia, Astrapia stephaniae Huon astrapia, Astrapia rothschildi genus: Parotia Western parotia, Parotia sefilata Queen Carola's parotia, Parotia carolae Bronze parotia, Parotia berlepschi Lawes's parotia, Parotia lawesii Eastern parotia, Parotia helenae Wahnes's parotia, Parotia wahnesi genus: Pteridophora King of Saxony bird-of-paradise, Pteridophora alberti genus: Lophorina Greater lophorina, Lophorina superba Crescent-caped lophorina, Lophorina niedda Lesser lophorina, Lophorina minor

genus: Ptiloris subgenus: Craspedophora Magnificent riflebird, Ptiloris magnificus subgenus: Ptiloris Growling riflebird, Ptiloris intercedens Paradise riflebird, Ptiloris paradiseus Victoria's riflebird, Ptiloris victoriae genus: Epimachus Black sicklebill, Epimachus fastuosus Brown sicklebill, Epimachus meyeri genus: Drepanornis Black-billed sicklebill, Drepanornis albertisi Pale-billed sicklebill, Drepanornis bruijnii genus: Diphyllodes Magnificent bird-of-paradise, Diphyllodes magnificus Wilson's bird-of-paradise, Diphyllodes respublica genus: Cicinnurus King bird-of-paradise, Cicinnurus regius genus: Semioptera Standardwing, Semioptera wallacii genus: Seleucidis Twelve-wired bird-of-paradise, Seleucidis melanoleucus genus: Paradisaea subgenus: Paradisaea Lesser bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea minor Greater bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea apoda Raggiana bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea raggiana Goldie's bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea decora Red bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea rubra Emperor bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea guilielmi subgenus: Paradisornis Blue bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea rudolphi

Hybrids

Main article: List of hybrid birds-of-paradise
Hybrid birds-of-paradise may occur when individuals of different species, that look similar and have overlapping ranges, confuse each other for their own species and crossbreed.
When Erwin Stresemann realised that hybridisation among birds-of-paradise might be an explanation as to why so many of the described species were so rare, he examined many controversial specimens and, during the 1920s and 1930s, published several papers on his hypothesis. Many of the species described in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are now generally considered to be hybrids, though some are still subject to dispute; their status is not likely to be settled definitely without genetic examination of museum specimens.


Description


Sicklebills such as this brown sicklebill have decurved bills.
Birds-of-paradise are closely related to the corvids. Birds-of-paradise range in size from the king bird-of-paradise at 50 g (1.8 oz) and 15 cm (5.9 in) to the curl-crested manucode at 44 cm (17 in) and 430 g (15 oz). The male black sicklebill, with its long tail, is the longest species at 110 cm (43 in). In most species, the tails of the males are larger and longer than the female, the differences ranging from slight to extreme. The wings are rounded and in some species structurally modified on the males in order to make sound. There is considerable variation in the family with regard to bill shape. Bills may be long and decurved, as in the sicklebills and riflebirds, or small and slim like the Astrapias. As with body size bill size varies between the sexes, although species where the females have larger bills than the male are more common, particularly in the insect eating species.^[2]
Plumage variation between the sexes is closely related to breeding system. The manucodes and paradise-crow, which are socially monogamous, are sexually monomorphic. So are the two species of Paradigalla, which are polygamous. All these species have generally black plumage with varying amounts of green and blue iridescence.^[2] The female plumage of the dimorphic species is typically drab to blend in with their habitat, unlike the bright attractive colours found on the males. Younger males of these species have female-like plumage, and sexual maturity takes a long time, with the full adult plumage not being obtained for up to seven years. This affords the younger males the protection from predators of more subdued colours, and also reduces hostility from adult males.^[2]


Habitat and distribution

The centre of bird-of-paradise diversity is the large island of New Guinea; all but two genera are found in New Guinea. The two that are not are the monotypic genera Lycocorax and Semioptera, both of which are endemic to the Maluku Islands, to the west of New Guinea. Of the riflebirds in the genus Ptiloris, two are endemic to the coastal forests of eastern Australia, one occurs in both Australia and New Guinea, and one is only found in New Guinea. The only other genus to have a species outside New Guinea is Phonygammus, one representative of which is found in the extreme north of Queensland. The remaining species are restricted to New Guinea and some of the surrounding islands. Many species have highly restricted ranges, particularly a number of species with restricted habitat types such as mid-montane forest (like the black sicklebill) or island endemics (like the Wilson's bird-of-paradise).^[2]
The majority of birds-of-paradise live in tropical forests, including rainforest, swamps and moss forest,^[2] nearly all of them solitary tree dwellers.^[7] Several species have been recorded in coastal mangroves.^[8] The southernmost species, the paradise riflebird of Australia, lives in sub-tropical and temperate wet forests. As a group the manucodes are the most plastic in their habitat requirements, with in particular the glossy-mantled manucode inhabiting both forest and open savanna woodland.^[2] Mid-montane habitats are the most commonly occupied habitat, with thirty of the forty species occurring in the 1000–2000 m altitudinal band.^[8]


Behaviour and ecology

Diet and feeding


Fruits of the genus Schefflera are an important part of the diet of the ribbon-tailed astrapia.
The diet of the birds-of-paradise is dominated by fruit and arthropods, although small amounts of nectar and small vertebrates may also be taken. The ratio of the two food types varies by species, with fruit predominating in some species, and arthropods dominating the diet in others. The ratio of the two will affect other aspects of the behaviour of the species, for example frugivorous species tend to feed in the forest canopy, whereas insectivores may feed lower down in the middle storey. Frugivores are more social than the insectivores, which are more solitary and territorial.^[2]
Even the birds-of-paradise that are primarily insect eaters will still take large amounts of fruit; and the family is overall an important seed disperser for the forests of New Guinea, as they do not digest the seeds. Species that feed on fruit will range widely searching for fruit, and while they may join other fruit eating species at a fruiting tree they will not associate with them otherwise and will not stay with other species long. Fruit are eaten while perched and not from the air, and birds-of-paradise are able to use their feet as tools to manipulate and hold their food, allowing them to extract certain capsular fruit. There is some niche differention in fruit choice by species and any one species will only consume a limited number of fruit types compared to the large choice available. For example, the trumpet manucode and crinkle-collared manucode will eat mostly figs, whereas the Lawes's parotia focuses mostly on berries and the greater lophorina and raggiana bird-of-paradise take mostly capsular fruit.^[2]


Breeding


A male Victoria's riflebird displays and is inspected by a female.
Most species have elaborate mating rituals, with the Paradisaea species using a lek-type mating system. Others, such as the Cicinnurus and Parotia species, have highly ritualised mating dances. Males are polygamous in the sexually dimorphic species, but monogamous in at least some of the monomorphic species. Hybridisation is frequent in these birds, suggesting the polygamous species of bird of paradise are very closely related despite being in different genera. Many hybrids have been described as new species, and doubt remains regarding whether some forms, such as Rothschild's lobe-billed bird of paradise, are valid.^{[citation needed]}
Birds-of-paradise build their nests from soft materials, such as leaves, ferns, and vine tendrils, typically placed in a tree fork.^[9] The typical number of eggs in each clutch varies among the species and is not known for every species. For larger species, it is almost always just one egg, but smaller species may produce clutches of 2–3. eggs^[10] Eggs hatch after 16–22 days, and the young leave the nest at between 16 and 30 days of age.^[9]


Relationship with humans


Male greater bird-of-paradise
Societies of New Guinea often use bird-of-paradise plumes in their dress and rituals, and the plumes were popular in Europe in past centuries as adornment for ladies' millinery. Hunting for plumes and habitat destruction have reduced some species to endangered status; habitat destruction due to deforestation is now the predominant threat.^[2]
Best known are the members of the genus Paradisaea, including the type species, the greater bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea apoda. This species was described from specimens brought back to Europe from trading expeditions in the early sixteenth century. These specimens had been prepared by native traders by removing their wings and feet so that they could be used as decorations. This was not known to the explorers, and in the absence of information many beliefs arose about them. They were briefly thought to be the mythical phoenix. The often footless and wingless condition of the skins led to the belief that the birds never landed but were kept permanently aloft by their plumes. The first Europeans to encounter their skins were the voyagers in Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the Earth. Antonio Pigafetta wrote that "The people told us that those birds came from the terrestrial paradise, and they call them bolon diuata, that is to say, 'birds of God"."^[11] This is the origin of both the name "bird of paradise" and the specific name apoda – without feet.^[12] An alternate account by Maximilianus Transylvanus used the term Mamuco Diata, a variant of Manucodiata, which was used as a synonym for birds-of-paradise up to the 19th century.


Birdwatching

In recent years the availability of pictures and videos about birds of paradise in the internet has raised interest of birdwatchers around the world. A lot of them fly to West Papua to watch various species of birds of paradise from Wilson's Bird of Paradise (Diphyllodes respublica) and Red Bird of Paradise (Paradisaea rubra) in Raja Ampat to Lesser Birds of Paradise (Paradisaea minor), Magnificent Riflebird (Ptiloris magnificus), King Bird of Paradise (Cicinnurus regius), and Magnificent Bird of Paradise (Diphyllodes magnificus) in Susnguakti forest.
This activity significantly reduces the number of local villagers who are involved in the hunting of paradise birds.


Hunting

Hunting of birds of paradise has occurred for a long time, possibly since the beginning of human settlement. It is a peculiarity that among the most frequently-hunted species, males start mating opportunistically even before they grow their ornamental plumage. This may be an adaptation maintaining population levels in the face of hunting pressures, which have probably been present for hundreds of years.^{[citation needed]}
The naturalist, explorer and author Alfred Russel Wallace spent six years in what was then called The Malay Archipelago (published 1869), shooting, collecting and describing many specimens of animals and birds including the great, king, twelve-wired, superb, red and six-shafted birds of paradise.^[13]
Hunting to provide plumes for the millinery trade was extensive in the late 19th and early 20th century,^[14] but today the birds enjoy legal protection and hunting is only permitted at a sustainable level to fulfill the ceremonial needs of the local tribal population. In the case of Pteridophora plumes, scavenging from old bowerbird bowers is encouraged.


Other examples

• The southern hemisphere constellation Apus represents a bird-of-paradise.
• An adult-plumaged male bird-of-paradise is depicted on the Flag of Papua New Guinea.
• The various members of the family were profiled by David Attenborough in Attenborough in Paradise.
• The Indonesian Army has a Military Area Command named after "Cenderawasih", the local name for the bird.
• The plume from the bird of paradise was used in the Royal crown worn by the King of Nepal, before the establishment of a republic. Now, the crown is housed in Naraynhiti Palace

THE MARTENS

The martens constitute the genus Martes within the subfamily Guloninae, in the family Mustelidae. They have bushy tails and large paws with partially retractile claws. The fur varies from yellowish to dark brown, depending on the species, and is valued by trappers for the fur trade. Martens are slender, agile animals, adapted to living in the taiga, and inhabit coniferous and northern deciduous forests across the Northern Hemisphere.

 

 

 

Classification

Yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula), Thailand

Results of DNA research indicate that the genus Martes is polyphyletic, with some studies placing Martes americana outside the genus and allying it with Eira and Gulo, to form a new New World clade.^[1][2] The genus first evolved up to seven million years ago during the Miocene epoch.

• American marten (M. americana)
  • Newfoundland pine marten (M. a. atrata)
• Yellow-throated marten (M. flavigula)
• Beech marten (M. foina)
• Nilgiri marten (M. gwatkinsii)
• European pine marten (M. martes)
• Japanese marten (M. melampus)
• Sable (M. zibellina)
• Martes wenzensis†
• Martes nobilis†

Etymology

The Modern English "marten" comes from the Middle English martryn, in turn borrowed from the Anglo-French martrine and Old French martre (Latin martes), itself from a Germanic source; cf. Old English mearþ, Old Norse mörðr, and Old High German and Yiddish מאַרדאַר mardar.

Ecology and behaviour

Martens are solitary animals, meeting only to breed in late spring or early summer. Litters of up to five blind and nearly hairless kits are born in early spring. They are weaned after around two months, and leave the mother to fend for themselves at about three to four months of age. Due to their habit of seeking warm and dry places and to gnaw on soft materials, martens cause damage to soft plastic and rubber parts in cars and other parked vehicles, annually costing millions of euros in Central Europe alone, thus leading to the offering of marten-damage insurance, "marten-proofing", and electronic repellent devices.^[3][4][5][6] They are omnivorous.

Cultural references

Canada

The marten is popular in the northern Ontario community of Big Trout Lake. During the fur trade, commissioned by the Hudson Bay Company in the 17th and 18th centuries, the marten pelt was typically fashioned into mittens. The marten is still traded locally. The locals place a high value on this pelt, typically trading it for consumable goods.^{[citation needed]}

Croatia

In the Middle Ages, marten pelts were highly valued goods used as a form of payment in Slavonia, the Croatian Littoral, and Dalmatia. The banovac, a coin struck and used between 1235 and 1384, included the image of a marten. This is one of the reasons why the Croatian word for marten, kuna, is the name of the modern Croatian currency.^[7] A marten is depicted on the obverse of the 1-, 2-, and 5-kuna coins, minted since 1993, and on the reverse of the 25-kuna commemorative coins.^[8]
A running marten is shown on the coat of arms of Slavonia and subsequently on the modern design of the coat of arms of Croatia. The official seal of the Croatian Sabor (parliament) from 1497 until the late 18th century had a similar design.^[9][10]

Finland

The Finnish communications company Nokia derives its name, via the river Nokianvirta, from a type of marten locally known as the nokia.^[11]

Greece

In the Illiad, the fleet-footed spy Dolon wore a marten-pelt cap.

Italy

The Latin word for helmet, galea, originally meant "marten pelt," although it is unclear whether early Romans wore these helmets for symbolical reasons or for their fine fur.^[12]



  Martes
Pinel, 1792


 



Marten ranges:

• M. americana = cyan & teal
• M. flavigula = dark blue & sepia
• M. foina = rust, brown & sepia
• M. gwatkinsii
• M. martes = orange, rust & grass-green
• M. melampus = yellow
• M. pennanti = purple & teal
• M. zibellina = green & grass-gree

 

THE CAPE GENET

The Cape genet (Genetta tigrina), also known as the South African large-spotted genet, is a genet species endemic to South Africa. As it is common and not threatened, it is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.^[1] Like other genets, it is nocturnal and arboreal, preferring to live in the riparian zones of forests, as long as these are not marshy areas.^[2]

 

 

Characteristics

The Cape genet is ash grey with brown irregular spots and a black stripe along the spine. Its muzzle is white, and it has white spots below the eye. Its ears are grey. Its tail is black and white banded with a black tip.^[3] Some individuals living in areas with more than 375 mm (14.8 in) annual precipitation are darker than individuals from drier areas.^[4]
Measurements of adult males range from 460 to 580 mm (18 to 23 in) in head and body with a 390 to 459 mm (15.4 to 18.1 in) long tail and a weight of 1.6 to 2.1 kg (3.5 to 4.6 lb). Adult females range from 427 to 560 mm (16.8 to 22.0 in) in head and body with a 385 to 432 mm (15.2 to 17.0 in) long tail and a weight of 1.36 to 1.870 kg (3.00 to 4.12 lb).^[5]
Like in all Viverrinae, its dental formula is: 3.1.4.23.1.4.2.^[6] Like all genets, it has musk glands and anal sacs.^[7]
It differs from other genets by a short dorsal crest and poorly spotted hind legs, which are dark at the back.^[8][9]

Distribution and habitat

In South Africa, the Cape genet is distributed from the Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal, south of 32°S, and to the Lesotho border.^[1] It is the most widely distributed and common small carnivore in KwaZulu-Natal, and rests in large trees, rock overhangs and caves.^[10] It lives in moist environments near streams, rivers and standing water, in lowland and mountain fynbos, where vegetation cover is high.^[5]

Ecology and behaviour

Cape genets have been recorded solitary, and mostly at night. During the day, they rest in trees high above the ground. They are both terrestrial and arboreal, but hunt and feed on the ground.^[5] They mark by depositing a secretion from the anal sac.^[4] It is unknown whether they are territorial.^[10] They use latrine sites to defecate.^[11]
Cape genets become active after dark to search for prey. Combining speed and stealth, they dash forward in an elusive fashion, broken up by short pauses. They hiss and growl in stressful situations. Olfactory communication is most likely very important in the life of Cape genets, their social environment and life cycle. When walking on branches, they stay low and laterally swing their legs out so that any misstep is easily correctable.^[12]

Feeding ecology

Cape genets feed mostly on rodents such as African vlei rats, rock rats, mice and birds. Also seeds, leaves and grass was found in their stomachs, as well as beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, locusts and termites.^[4][5] They find most of their prey in low bushes and leaf litter, including African climbing mice, multimammate mice and African dormice. They are considered to be opportunistic omnivores, since they also catch and feed on insects, spiders, scorpions, and scavenge fish on the beach. Eating grass may aid digestion, dislodge hair in the intestines, induce vomiting to get rid of ingested toxins, relieve throat inflammation and stomach irritation. Birds appear to not be prevalent their diet.^[2]

Reproduction

Cape genets apparently mate during the warm summer months. Pregnant females were observed in September to November.^[4][5] Two young weighed 70 g at birth.^[5]
A captive breeding pair regularly had litters of two young.^[11] Gestation periods last about 70 days. Females make nests in hollow trees, in holes or among boulders. The young open their eyes 10 days after birth, their canine teeth break through at the age of four weeks. They are weaned at about 2.5 months and hunt on their own when about seven months old.^[13]
Captive Cape genets lived for 15 years.^[14]

Threats

Cape genet in captivity

Cape genets face no major threats. As they sometimes kill poultry, they are killed in retaliation by farmers.^[15]

Conservation

Cape genets have been recorded in dozens of protected areas. Outside reserves they are unprotected, and not listed in the South African Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.^[10]












 

TREE KANGAROOS

Tree-kangaroos are marsupials of the genus Macropods, adapted for arboreal locomotion. They inhabit the tropical rainforests of New Guinea and far northeastern Queensland, along with some of the islands in the region. Most tree-kangaroos are considered threatened due to hunting and habitat destruction. They are the only true arboreal macropods.^[1]




 
 

Evolution

The evolutionary history of tree-kangaroos begins with a rainforest floor-dwelling pademelon-like ancestor.^[2] This ancestor evolved from an arboreal possum-like ancestor as is suspected of all macropodid marsupials in Australia and New Guinea. During the late Eocene, the Australian/New Guinean continent began a period of drying that caused a retreat in the area of rainforest,^[3] which forced the ancestral pademelons to begin living in a dryer, rockier environment. After some generations of adaptation to the new environment, the pademelons evolved into rock-wallabies (Petrogale spp.),^[2] which developed a generalist feeding strategy due to their dependence on a diverse assortment of vegetation refuges.^[4] This generalist strategy allowed the rock-wallabies to easily adapt to malesian rainforest types that were introduced to Australia from Asia during the mid-Miocene.^[2][3] The rock-wallabies that migrated into these introduced forests adapted to spend more time climbing trees. One species in particular, the proserpine rock-wallaby (Petrogale persephone), displays equal preference for climbing trees as for living in rocky outcrops.^[2] During the late-Miocene the semi-arboreal rock-wallabies evolved into the now extinct tree-kangaroo genus Bohra.^[5] Global cooling during the Pleistocene caused continent-wide drying and rainforest retractions in Australia and New Guinea.^[6] The rainforest contractions isolated populations of Bohra which resulted in the evolution of today's tree-kangaroos (Dendrolagus spp.), as they adapted to lifestyles in geographically small and diverse rainforest fragments, and became further specialized for a canopy-dwelling lifestyle.^[7]


Taxonomy

Species


Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo at Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary, Queensland, Australia
These species are assigned to the genus Dendrolagus:^[8]

• Grizzled tree-kangaroo, D. inustus; northern and western New Guinea, plus the island of Yapen, and possibly Salawati and Waigeo
• Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo, D. lumholtzi; Queensland
• Bennett's tree-kangaroo, D. bennettianus; Queensland
• Ursine tree-kangaroo, D. ursinus; Vogelkop, New Guinea
• Matschie's tree-kangaroo, D. matschiei; Huon Peninsula, New Guinea
• Doria's tree-kangaroo, D. dorianus; western, central, and southeastern New Guinea
• Seri's tree-kangaroo, D. stellarum; highlands of west-central New Guinea
• Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo, D. goodfellowi; central and southeastern New Guinea
• Golden-mantled tree-kangaroo, D. pulcherrimus; Foja and Torricelli Mountains, New Guinea
• Lowlands tree-kangaroo, D. spadix; south-western lowlands of Papua New Guinea
• Dingiso, D. mbaiso; highlands of west-central New Guinea
• Tenkile, D. scottae; Sandaun Province, New Guinea
• Wondiwoi tree-kangaroo, D. mayri; the higher areas of the Wondiwoi Peninsula (thought to be extinct until 2018.^[9])
Seri's tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus stellarum) has been described as a subspecies of Doria's tree-kangaroo (D. dorianus),^[10][11] but some recent authorities have treated it as a separate species based on its absolute diagnostability.^[8]
The Wondiwoi tree-kangaroo is among the 25 “most wanted lost” species that are the focus of Global Wildlife Conservation's “Search for Lost Species” initiative.^[12]
The case for the golden-mantled tree-kangaroo (D. pulcherrimus) is comparable to that of D. stellarum; it was first described as a subspecies of D. goodfellowi,^[10] though recent authorities have elevated it to species status based on its absolute diagnostability.^[8] A population of the tenkile (Scott's tree-kangaroo) recently discovered from the Bewani Mountains may represent an undescribed subspecies.^[13]


Distribution and habitat

Tree-kangaroos inhabit the tropical rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Australia, and some of the islands in the region, in particular, the Schouten Islands and the Raja Ampat Islands.^[14] Although most species are found in mountainous areas, several also occur in lowlands, such as the aptly named lowlands tree-kangaroo. Most tree-kangaroos are considered threatened due to hunting and habitat destruction. Because much of their lifestyle involves climbing and jumping between trees, they have evolved an appropriate method of locomotion. Tree-kangaroos thrive in tree tops as opposed to terrestrial kangaroos which survive on mainland Australia. Two species of tree-kangaroos are found in Australia, Bennett's (D. bennetianus), which is found north of the Daintree River and Lumholtz's (D. lumholtzi). Tree-kangaroos have adapted better to regions of high altitudes.^[15] At least 14 known subspecies of tree-kangaroo are living in Papua New Guinea and Australia. Tree-kangaroos must find places comfortable and well adapted for breeding, as they only give birth to one joey per year. They are known to have one of the most relaxed and leisurely birthing seasons. They breed cautiously in treetops during monsoon season. Their habitats are breeding grounds for danger as they can easily fall prey to their natural predators, amethystine pythons, which also climb and live in the forest treetops. Tree-kangaroos are known to be able to live in both mountainous regions and low-land locations.^[16]


Description

The Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo is the smallest of all tree-kangaroos. Its body and head length ranges about 48–65 cm, and its tail, 60–74 cm, with males weighing an average of 7.2 kg (16 lb) and females 5.9 kg (13 lb). The length of the Doria's tree-kangaroo is 51–78 cm, with a long 44–66 cm tail, and weighs 6.5–14.5 kg. The Matschie's tree-kangaroo has a body and head length of 81 cm (20 to 32 inches), adult males weigh 9–11 kg (20-25 lb) and adult females weigh 7–9 kg (15-20 lb). The grizzled tree-kangaroo grows to a length of 75–90 cm (30 to 35 in), with males being considerably larger than females, and its weight is 8–15 kg (18-33 lb).
Tree-kangaroos have several adaptations to an arboreal life-style. Compared to terrestrial kangaroos, tree-kangaroos have longer and broader hind feet with longer, curved nails. They also have a sponge-like grip on their paws and soles of their feet. Tree-kangaroos have a much larger and pendulous tail than terrestrial kangaroos, giving them enhanced balance while moving about the trees. Locomotion on the ground is by hopping, as with true kangaroos. Like terrestrial kangaroos, tree-kangaroos do not sweat to cool their bodies, rather, they lick their forearms and allow the moisture to evaporate in an adaptive form of behavioural thermoregulation.^[17]


Behaviour

Locomotion

Tree-kangaroos are slow and clumsy on the ground. They move at approximately human walking pace and hop awkwardly, leaning their body far forward to balance the heavy tail. However, in trees, they are bold and agile. They climb by wrapping their forelimbs around the trunk of a tree and, while allowing the forelimbs to slide, hop up the tree using their powerful hind legs. They are expert leapers; 9 metres (30 ft) downward jumps from one tree to another have been recorded and they have the extraordinary ability to jump to the ground from 18 metres (59 ft) or more without being hurt.^{[citation needed]}


Diet

The main diet of the tree-kangaroo is leaves and fruit that it gathers from the trees, but occasionally scavenged from the ground. Tree-kangaroos will also eat grains, flour, various nuts, sap and tree bark.^[17] Some captive tree-kangaroos (perhaps limited to New Guinea species) eat protein foods such as eggs, birds and snakes, making them omnivores.^[2]


Reproduction

Little is known about the reproduction of tree-kangaroos in the wild. The only published data are from captive individuals.^[18] Female tree-kangaroos reach sexual maturity as early as 2.04 years of age and males at 4.6 years. The female's fertile period is estimated to be approximately two months. They have one of the longest marsupial offspring development/maturation periods; pouch life for the young is 246–275 days long and weaning occurs 87–240 days later.^[19]


Orphan

At Adelaide Zoo, an orphan tree-kangaroo joey was transferred to the pouch of a yellow-foot rock-wallaby when his mother was killed by a falling branch in November 2014. The joey survived, having been successfully reared by the surrogate mother wallaby.^[20]


Threats

The two most significant threats to tree-kangaroos are habitat loss and hunting. Tree-kangaroo habitats are being destroyed or replaced by logging and timber production, along with coffee, rice and wheat production. This habitat loss can make tree-kangaroos more exposed to predators such as domestic dogs. Being hunted by local community members also contributes markedly to the declines in tree-kangaroo populations.^[17] Research conducted on the Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo, a species that dwells in the rain forests of north-eastern Australia, determined the frequency of causes of death. This showed that of 27 deceased tree-kangaroos, 11 had been killed by vehicles, 6 by dogs, 4 by parasites and the remaining 6 died from other causes.^[21]


Gallery

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  Back and tail of a Buergers' tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus goodfellowi buergersi)
  
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  Two Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos, (Dendrolagus goodfellowi)
  
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  Lumholtz's tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus lumholtzii)
  
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  Buergers' tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus goodfellowi buergersi)