THE BLUE CRANE

 

The blue crane (Grus paradisea), also known as the Stanley crane and the paradise crane, is the national bird of South Africa. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.

Blue cranes are birds of the dry grassy uplands, usually the pastured grasses of hills, valleys, and plains with a few scattered trees. They prefer areas in the nesting season that have access to both upland and wetland areas, though they feed almost entirely in dry areas. They are altitudinal migrants, generally nesting in the lower grasslands of an elevation of around 1,300 to 2,000 m and moving down to lower altitudes for winter.

 

 

Blue cranes are birds of the dry grassy uplands, usually the pastured grasses of hills, valleys, and plains with a few scattered trees. They prefer areas in the nesting season that have access to both upland and wetland areas, though they feed almost entirely in dry areas. They are altitudinal migrants, generally nesting in the lower grasslands of an elevation of around 1,300 to 2,000 m and moving down to lower altitudes for winter.

Of the 15 species of crane, the blue crane has the most restricted distribution of all. Even species with lower population numbers now (such as Siberian or whooping cranes) are found over a considerable range in their migratory movements. The blue crane is migratory, primarily altitudinal, but details are little known.

 

 

The blue crane is partially social, less so during the breeding season. There is a strict hierarchy in groups, with the larger adult males being dominant. They overlap in range with three other crane species but interactions with these species and other "large wader" type birds are not known. They are aggressively protective of their nesting sites during the nesting season, even attacking innocent, non-predatory animals such as antelope, cattle, tortoises, plovers and the smallest of birds, such as sparrows. Humans are also attacked if they approach a nest too closely, with the aggressive male having torn clothes and drawn blood in such cases. Threats to their eggs and chicks include large savannah and white-throated monitor lizards, egg-eating snakes, foxes, jackals, birds-of-prey, meerkats, and mongoose.

Blue cranes feed from the ground and appear to rarely feed near wetland areas. Most of their diet is comprised by grasses and sedges, with many types fed on based on their proximity to the nests. They are also regularly insectivorous, feeding on numerous, sizeable insects such as grasshoppers. Small animals such as crabs, snails, frogs, small lizards and snakes may supplement the diet, with such protein-rich food often being broken down and fed to the young.

The breeding period is highly seasonal, with eggs being recorded between October and March. Pair-formation amongst groups often starts in October, beginning with both potential parents running in circles with each other. The male then engages in a "dance" flings various objects in the air and then jumps. Eventually, a female from the group and the male appear to "select" each other and both engage in the dance of throwing objects and jumping. After the dance, mating commences in around two weeks.

 

In a great majority of known nests, two eggs are laid (rarely one or three). Both males and females will incubate, with the male often incubating at night and, during the day, defending the nest territory while the female incubates. The incubation stage lasts around 30 days. The young are able to walk after two days and can swim well shortly thereafter. They are fed primarily by their mothers, who regurgitates food into the mouths. The chicks fledge in the age of 3–5 months.^[6] The young continue to be tended to until the next breeding season, at which time they are chased off by their parents.

While it remains common in parts of its historic range, and approx. 26 000 individuals remain, it began a sudden population decline from around 1980 and is now classified as vulnerable.

 

 

In the last two decades, the blue crane has largely disappeared from the Eastern Cape, Lesotho, and Eswatini. The population in the northern Free State, Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West Province has declined by up to 90%. The majority of the remaining population is in eastern and southern South Africa, with a small and separate population in the Etosha Pan of northern Namibia. Occasionally, isolated breeding pairs are found in five neighbouring countries.

The primary causes of the sudden decline of the blue crane are human population growth, the conversion of grasslands into commercial tree plantations, and poisoning: deliberate (to protect crops)^[7] or accidental (baits intended for other species, and as a side-effect of crop dusting).

The South African government has stepped up legal protection for the blue crane. Other conservation measures are focusing on research, habitat management, education, and recruiting the help of private landowners.

The blue crane is culturally significant to the Xhosa people, who call it indwe (flag).^[9] Traditionally, when a man distinguished himself in battle or otherwise, he was often decorated by a chief with blue crane feathers in a ceremony called ukundzabela. Men so honoured, who would wear the feathers sticking out of their hair, were known as men of ugaba (trouble)—the implication being that if trouble arose, they would reinstate peace and order.

 

 

It is also of significance to the Zulu people, whose kings and warriors wore a single or many feathers as a headdress.^[10]

 

 

Because of the association with warriors and heroism, the Isitwalandwe Medal was created to honour those who had "made an outstanding contribution and sacrifice to the liberation struggle", that is, those who resisted the apartheid regime in South Africa (1949–1991) in various ways. Isitwalandwe means "the one who wears the plumes of the rare bird",^[11] or blue crane.^[10]

The blue crane is also the national bird of South Africa.^[12]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Blue crane distribution range according to the IUCN.

 

 

 

 

  Extant (resident)

  Extant (seasonality uncertain)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE BUSH DOGS

 

The bush dog (Speothos venaticus) is a canine found in Central and South America.^[4][5] In spite of its extensive range, it is very rare in most areas except in Suriname, Guyana and Peru;^[5][7] it was first identified by Peter Wilhelm Lund from fossils in Brazilian caves and was believed to be extinct.^[7] The bush dog is the only living species in the genus Speothos,^[4] and genetic evidence suggests that its closest living relative is the maned wolf of central South America^[8] or the African wild dog.^[9] The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.

 

 

In Brazil it is called cachorro-vinagre ("vinegar dog") or cachorro-do-mato ("bush dog"). In Spanish-speaking countries it is called perro vinagre ("vinegar dog"), zorro vinagre ("vinegar fox"), perro de agua ("water dog"), or perro de monte ("mountain dog").

 

 

 

 

Adult bush dogs have soft long brownish-tan fur, with a lighter reddish tinge on the head, neck and back and a bushy tail, while the underside is dark, sometimes with a lighter throat patch. Younger individuals, however, have black fur over their entire bodies.^[7] Adults typically have a head-body length of 57–75 cm (22–30 in), with a 12.5–15 cm (5–6 in) tail. They have a shoulder height of 20–30 cm (8–12 in) and weigh 5–8 kg (11–18 lb).^[10] They have short legs relative to their body, as well as a short snout and relatively small ears.^[7]

The teeth are adapted for its carnivorous habits. Uniquely for an American canid, the dental formula is 3.1.4.13.1.4.2 for a total of 38 teeth.^[7] The bush dog is one of three canid species (the other two being the dhole and the African wild dog) with trenchant heel dentition, having a single cusp on the talonid of the lower carnassial tooth that increases the cutting blade length.^[7] Females have four pairs of teats and both sexes have large scent glands on either side of the anus.^[7] Bush dogs have partially webbed toes, which allow them to swim more efficiently.^[11]

 

Genetics

Speothos has a diploid chromosome number of 74,^[12] and so it is unable to produce fertile hybrids with other canids.^{[citation needed]}

 

 

 Bush dogs are found from Costa Rica^[13] in Central America and through much of South America east of the Andes, as far south as central Bolivia, Paraguay and southern Brazil. They primarily inhabit lowland forests up to 1,900 metres (6,200 ft) elevation,^[7] wet savannas and other habitats near rivers, but may also be found in drier cerrado and open pasture.^[5] The historic range of 

 

this species may have extended as far north as Costa Rica where the species may still be found in suitable habitat.^[5][14][15] New, repeated observations of bush dog groups have been recorded in east-central (Barbilla National Park) and south-eastern (La Amistad International Park) Costa Rica, and a substantial portion of the Talamanca Mountains up to 120 km to the north-northwest and at elevations up to 2,119 m.^[16] Very recent fossils dating from 300 A.D. to 900 A.D.(the Late Ceramic Age) have been found in the Manzanilla site on the eastern coast of Trinidad.^[17]

 

 

Bush dogs are carnivores and hunt during the day. Their typical prey are pacas, agoutis, acouchis^[20] and capybaras, all large rodents. Although they can hunt alone, bush dogs are usually found in small packs. The dogs can bring down much larger prey, including peccaries and rheas, and a pack of six dogs has even been reported hunting a 250 kg (550 lb) tapir, where they trailed the animal and nipped at its legs until it was felled. When hunting paca, part of the pack chases it on land and part wait for it in the water, where it often retreats.^[7]

 

Bush dogs appear to be the most gregarious South American canid species. They use hollow logs and cavities such as armadillo burrows for shelter. Packs consist of a single mated pair and their immediate relations, and have a home range of 3.8 to 10 square kilometres (1.5 to 3.9 sq mi).^[7] Only the adult pair breed, while the other members of the pack are subordinate, and help with rearing and guarding any pups.^[21] Packmates keep in contact with frequent whines, perhaps because visibility is poor in the undergrowth where they typically hunt.^[22] While eating large prey, parents position themselves at either ends of the animal, making it easier for the pups to disembowel it.^[7]

  

 Bush dogs mate throughout the year; oestrus lasts up to twelve days and occurs every 15 to 44 days.^[23] Like many other canids, bush dog mating includes a copulatory tie, during which the animals are locked together.^[23] Urine-marking plays a significant role in their pre-copulatory behavior.^[24][25]

 

 

Gestation lasts from 65 to 83 days and normally results in the birth of a litter of three to six pups, although larger litters of up to 10 have been reported.^[7] The young are born blind and helpless and initially weigh 125 to 190 grams (4.4 to 6.7 oz). The eyes open after 14 to 19 days and the pups first emerge from the nativity den shortly thereafter.^[7] The young are weaned at around four weeks and reach sexual maturity at one year.^[26] They can live for up to 10 years in captivity.^[7]

 

 Bush dogs are very little known compared to other canines of the World and their conservation is still in the beginning stages. The species is so uncommon that when bush dog bones were discovered in a cave in 1839, paleontologist Peter Wilhelm Lund thought that they were already extinct.

 

Some barriers to bush dog conservation include their dense habitat and very scattered population making them difficult to locate, the need for very large areas not disturbed by humans for the bush dogs to live in because they live and hunt in packs, and their very shy nature. The species is currently listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN because of an estimated 20-25 percent loss in numbers over the latest 12-year period.^[3] The main threats to bush dogs in the wild are in order of most important: habitat loss, including 

 

 

fragmentation, the loss of prey species because of human poaching and diseases that they can get from the domestic dog populations that they come across. The type of habitat loss that is affecting bush dogs the most is clear cutting of trees in the amazon and other good habitats for wood, cattle farming and palm oil. Disease from domestic dogs is slowly becoming a bigger and bigger problem for bush dogs, because of human encroachment they now share more of their habitat than ever with potentially unvaccinated domestic dogs. Hunting of bush dogs is prohibited in most of their range, countries banning the hunting of 

 

the species include Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, French Guiana, Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, Panama and Argentina. There is nothing that explicitly bans bush dog hunting in the laws of Guyana and Suriname. Another issue is that many of the countries that the bush dog lives in have limited resources in place to enforce the wildlife laws that are made.

 

 

Currently scientists are using a number of different methods to try and create a management plan for bush dogs. Traditional camera traps have not worked well in evaluating the species because of how shy they are so scientists have deployed scent-detecting dogs to try and find the bush dogs burrows where they rest at 

 

night.^[2] The hope is to be able to collect better data about habitat use of the species, what kind of prey they hunt, and how and when the cubs branch off from the pack. There are protected areas that exist throughout the bush dogs range such as the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve which will theoretically be able to support feeder populations. In good news for the species, as recently as 2020, bush dogs were caught on camera traps in the Talamanca Mountains of Costa Rica suggesting that they may be expanding their range northward and even higher in elevation than previously thought possible. This could mean that if humans put in a concerted effort to try and save bush dogs the species will be able to respond well and keep a steady population or maybe even gain in numbers.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Bush dog range

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE BRIITISH COLUMBIA WOLF

 

The British Columbia wolf (Canis lupus columbianus) is a subspecies of gray wolf which lives in a narrow region that includes those parts of the mainland coast and near-shore islands that are covered with temperate rainforest, which extends from Vancouver Island, British Columbia, to the Alexander Archipelago in south-east Alaska.^[3] This area is bounded by the Coast Mountains.^[4]

The wolf was first classed as a distinct subspecies in 1941 by Edward Goldman, who described his specimen as being large with a skull closely resembling that of C. l. pambasileus, and whose fur is generally of a cinnamon-buff colour.^[2] This wolf is recognized as a subspecies of Canis lupus in the taxonomic authority Mammal Species of the World (2005).^[5]

 

Studies using mitochondrial DNA have indicated that the wolves of coastal south-east Alaska are genetically distinct from inland gray wolves, reflecting a pattern also observed in other taxa.^[4][6][7] They show a phylogenetic relationship with extirpated wolves from the south (Oklahoma), indicating that these wolves are the last remains of a once widespread group that has been largely extirpated during the last century, and that the wolves of northern North America had originally expanded from southern refuges below the Wisconsin glaciation after the ice had melted at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. These 

 

 

 

 findings call into question the taxonomic classification of C. l. nulibus proposed by Nowak.^[4] Another study found that the wolves of coastal British Columbia were genetically and ecologically distinct from the inland wolves, including other wolves from inland British Columbia.^[3] A study of the three coastal wolves indicated a close phylogenetic relationship across regions that are geographically and ecologically contiguous, and the study proposed that Canis lupus ligoni (Alexander Archipelago wolf), Canis lupus columbianus (British Columbia wolf), and Canis lupus crassodon (Vancouver Island wolf) should be recognized as a single subspecies of Canis lupus.^[7]

 

 

In 2016, two studies compared the DNA sequences of 42,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms in North American gray wolves and found the coastal wolves to be genetically and phenotypically distinct from other wolves.^[8] They share the same habitat and prey species, and form one of the study's six identified ecotypes – a genetically and ecologically distinct population separated from other populations by their different type of habitat.^[8][9] The local adaptation of a wolf ecotype most likely reflects the wolf's preference to remain in the type of habitat that it was born into.^[8] Wolves that prey on fish and small deer in wet, coastal environments tend to be smaller than other wolves.^[8]

The British Columbia wolf is one of the largest subspecies of North American wolves. They weigh around 80 (36 kg) to 150 pounds (68 kg) and are roughly 5ft (152 cm) to 5ft 10 (178 cm) long. These wolves have long coats which were usually black, often mixed with grey, or brown.^[10]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Historical and present range of gray wolf subspecies in North America