THE ARABIAN LEOPARD

 

The Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) is the smallest leopard subspecies. It was described in 1830 and is native to the Arabian Peninsula, where it was widely distributed in rugged hilly and montane terrain until the late 1970s. Today, the population is severely fragmented and thought to decline 

 

 continuously. In 2008, an estimated 45–200 individuals in three isolated subpopulations were restricted to western Saudi Arabia, Oman and Yemen. However, as of 2023, it is estimated that 100–120 in total remain, with 70-84 mature individuals, in Oman and Yemen, and it is possibly extinct in Saudi Arabia. The current population trend is suspected to be decreasing.^[1]

Felis pardus nimr was the scientific name proposed by Wilhelm Hemprich and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1830 for a leopard from Arabia.^[2] Panthera pardus jarvisi, proposed by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1932, was based on a leopard skin from the Sinai Peninsula.^[3]

 

 In the early 1990s, a phylogeographic analysis was carried out based on tissue samples from Asian and African leopards. P. p. jarvisi was provisionally grouped with Panthera pardus tulliana, as tissue samples 

 were not available.^[4] Genetic analysis of a single wild leopard from South Arabia appeared most closely related to the African leopard, and Molecular biologists tentatively proposed in 2001 to group the Sinai leopard with the Arabian leopard, as again tissue samples were not available.^[5]

The Arabian leopard's fur varies from pale yellow to deep golden, tawny or grey and is patterned with rosettes.^[6] Males have a total length of 182–203 cm (72–80 in) including 77–85 cm (30–33 in) long tails and weigh about 30 kg (66 lb); females are 160–192 cm (63–76 in) long including 67–79 cm (26–31 in) long tails and weigh around 20 kg (44 lb).^[7] It is the smallest leopard subspecies.^[8] It is, however, the largest cat in the Arabian Peninsula.^[9][10]

 

The geographic range of the Arabian leopard is poorly understood but generally considered to be limited to the Arabian Peninsula, includingUntil the late 1960s, the Arabian leopard was widely distributed in the mountains along both the coasts of the

 

 In the United Arab Emirates, the Arabian leopard was first sighted in 1949 by Wilfred Thesiger in Jebel Hafeet.^[14] The exact status of the leopard in the country is unclear. It is either extinct or very rare in the eastern region, with occasional sightings being reported in places like Wadi Wurayah.^[15] Before the end of the 20th century, sightings were reported in the areas of Jebel Hafeet and Al-Hajar Mountains.^[7][16]

 

 In Oman, leopards were reported to have occurred in the Hajar Mountains until the late 1970s.^[7] The largest confirmed sub-population inhabits the Dhofar Mountains in the country's southeast. In the Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve, 17 individual adult leopards were identified between 1997 and 2000 using 

 

camera traps.^[17] Leopards were also sighted in the Musandam Peninsula,^[7] particularly Ras Musandam.^[9] The home range of Arabian leopards in this reserve is roughly estimated at 350 km² (140 sq mi) for 

 

 males and 250 km² (97 sq mi) for females.^[16] The Dhofar mountain range is considered the best habitat for leopards in the country. This rugged terrain provides shelters, shade and trapped water, and harbors a wide variety of prey species, in particular in escarpments and narrow wadis.^[18]

 In Yemen, leopards formerly ranged in all mountainous areas of the country, including the western and southern highlands eastwards to the border with Oman. Since the early 1990s, leopards are considered rare and close to extinction due to direct persecution by local people and depletion of wild prey.^[19]

 There was a small population in Israel's Negev desert, estimated at 20 individuals in the late 1970s.^[20] Leopards were hunted until the early 1960s. By 2002, fewer than 11 isolated individuals were estimated to 

 survive. Six males, three females and two unsexed individuals were identified in the country, based on genetic analysis of 268 scats collected. About five individuals were thought to survive in the Judaean Desert as of 2005.^[21] The last wild leopard in the Negev desert was sighted near Sde Boker in 2007, which was in a poor and weak shape; and the last leopard in the northern Arabah Valley was sighted in 2010–11.^[22]

 Arabian leopards are predominantly nocturnal, but are sometimes also seen in daylight.^[10] They seem to concentrate on small to medium prey species, and usually store carcasses of large prey in caves or lairs but not in trees.^[24] Scat analyses revealed that the main prey species include Arabian gazelle, Nubian ibex, Cape hare, rock hyrax, porcupine, Ethiopian hedgehog, small rodents, birds, and insects. Since local people reduced ungulates to small populations, leopards are forced to alter their diet to smaller prey and livestock such as goats, sheep, donkeys and young camels.^[13]

 Information about ecology and behaviour of Arabian leopards in the wild is very limited.^[16] A leopard from the Judean desert is reported to have come into heat in March. After a gestation period of 13 weeks, females give birth to two to four cubs in a cave amidst boulders or in a burrow.^[10]

 

 Leopard cubs are born with closed eyes that open four to nine days later.^[25] Captive-born Arabian leopard cubs emerged from their den for the first time at the age of one month.^[26] Cubs are weaned at the age of about three months, and remain with their mother for up to two years.^[25]

 

 Three confirmed separate subpopulations remain on the Arabian Peninsula with fewer than an estimated 200 leopards.^[27][28] The Arabian leopard is threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation; prey depletion caused by unregulated hunting; trapping for the illegal wildlife trade and retaliatory killing in defense of livestock.^[7][13]

 The leopard population has decreased drastically in Arabia as shepherds and villagers kill leopards in retaliation for attacks on livestock. In addition, hunting of leopard prey species such as hyrax and ibex by local people and habitat fragmentation, especially in the Sarawat Mountains, made the continued survival 

 

 of the leopard population uncertain. Other reasons for killing leopards are for personal satisfaction and pride, traditional medicine and hides. Some leopards are killed accidentally when eating poisoned carcasses intended for Arabian wolf and striped hyena.^[29] Among the products sold in the tent city of Mina, Saudi Arabia after the Hajj of 2010, skins of Arabian leopards that were poached in Yemen were offered.^[30]

 The leopard population in Saudi Arabia is affected by the decrease of natural prey species so that leopards increasingly prey on livestock. Local people therefore consider leopards a threat and kill them either by using poison or snares. The leopard population is close to extinction in the country.^[31]

 The Israeli West Bank Barrier, built by the Israeli government in the mid-2000s, disrupts the migration of all terrestrial land animals between Israel and Palestine, therefore reducing animals' natural habitats and causing gene pools to be significantly shallower, which results in inbreeding and infertility.^[32]

 

 In the 1950s, the Arabian leopard population was already decreasing drastically due to habitat degradation and fragmentation, and killing of leopards and prey species.^[33]

The 4,500 km² (1,700 sq mi) Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve was established in 1997 after camera trap records of leopards were obtained; in the following decade, 17 individual adult leopards and one cub were identified.^[17] Leopards were also radio-collared and tracked in this Nature Reserve.^[34]

 

 At least ten wild leopards were live-captured in Yemen since the early 1990s and sold to zoos; some have been placed in conservation breeding centers in the UAE and Saudi Arabia.^[19]

 

 

A detailed study of leopard distribution and habitat requirement is needed for the management of the species. The ecological information needed includes data on feeding behavior, range use and reproduction. This information is of great importance to the survival of the species. There are many sites already 

 

surveyed and considered to be suitable for preservation for leopards in the plan adopted by the national commission for wildlife conservation and development. These areas include Jebel Fayfa, Jebel Al-Qahar, Jebel Shada, which has already been gazetted as a protected area, Jebel Nees, Jebel Wergan, Jebel Radwa and Harrat Uwayrid. The formal establishment of some of these areas is now urgent.^[1]

A successful

 

conservation strategy must promote the awareness of the importance of leopard conservation, employing the media and perhaps other sources for basic education programs. The support and involvement of people living close to leopard habitats are vital in such efforts. This is true not only 

 

because they might affect the conservation of the leopard in one way or another, but also because they depend on their livestock which could be killed occasionally by leopards. Although it is not always practical, compensation for lost livestock from leopard predation should be considered.^[35]

Revenue from sources such as hunting rights and ecotourism, services such as roads and school employment in protected areas would encourage local residents to participate in leopard conservation. 

 

 Furthermore, well-managed protected areas will ensure the continued survival of the species until other factors enhancing its survival become effective. Public awareness, fruitful consideration of the needs of local people and ecological studies may take years to be useful.^[36]

In Yemen, efforts are underway to conserve leopards at two sites, including Hawf Protected Area.^[37] In Saudi Arabia, authorities have undertaken efforts to create Sharaan Nature Reserve, a wildlife sanctuary for the leopard in the area of Al-`Ula.^[38][39]

In February 2022, the Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia declared 10 February as the "Arabian Leopard Day" in an effort to protect it and raise awareness of its conservation status.^[41] On the second Arabian Leopard Day in February 2023, the  

 Royal Commission for Al-'Ula created a $25 million fund to promote conservation efforts and signed a 10-year deal with Panthera Corporation worth $20 million.^[42] In June 2023, The United Nations voted to adopt a resolution to officially designate 10 February as an international day for the Arabian leopard.^[43]

 

 

 The first Arabian leopards were captured in southern Oman and registered in the studbook in 1985. Captive breeding was initiated in 1995 at the Oman Mammal Breeding Centre and is operated at a regional level on the Arabian Peninsula. Since 1999, the regional studbook is coordinated and managed by personnel of the  

 

Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife, Sharjah.^[44] As of 2010, nine institutions participated in the breeding programme and kept 42 males, 32 females, and three unsexed leopards, of which 19 were wild caught. This captive population comprised 14 founders that have an unequal number of descendants.^[45] In 2016, the leopards and other fauna were transferred from the breeding centre in Sharjah to Al Hefaiyah Conservation Centre in the eastern area of Kalba.^[46]

 

 

In Yemen, leopards were kept at Ta'izz and Sana'a Zoos.^[47] Two cubs were born on 26 April 2019 at the Prince Saud Al-Faisal Wildlife Research Center in Ta'if.^[48]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE HAMADRYAS BABOON

 

The hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas /ˌhæməˈdraɪ.əs/;^[4] Tigrinya: ጋውና, romanized: gawina;^[5] Arabic: رُبَّاح, romanized: rubbāḥ) is a species of baboon within the Old World monkey family. It is the northernmost of all the baboons, being native to the Horn of Africa and the southwestern region of the Arabian Peninsula. These regions provide habitats with the advantage for this species of fewer natural predators than central or southern Africa where other baboons reside. The hamadryas baboon was a sacred animal to the ancient Egyptians and appears in various roles in ancient Egyptian religion, hence its alternative name of 'sacred baboon'.^[6]

The hamadryas baboon shows differences in coloration among adults with males having a pronounced silver-white mane and mantle, which they develop at around the age of ten years, while the females are capeless and brown all over and have reddish to dark brown faces.^[7] They are also sexually dimorphic in size, and males are nearly twice as large as females.^[6] Males may have a body measurement of up to 80 cm (31 in) and weigh 20–30 kg (44–66 lb); females weigh 10–15 kg (22–33 lb) and have a body length of 40–45 cm (16–18 in).^[8] The tail adds a further 40–60 cm (16–24 in) to the length, and ends in a small tuft. Infants are very dark brown or black in coloration and lighten after about one year. Hamadryas baboons reach sexual maturity at about four years for females and between five and seven years for males.^[9]

The hamadryas baboon's range extends from the Red Sea in Eritrea to Ethiopia,[5] Djibouti and Somalia. It is also native to the Sarawat Mountains of southwestern Arabia, in both Yemen and Saudi Arabia. It is locally extinct in Egypt.[1][10] The hamadryas baboon lives in arid areas, savannas, and rocky areas, requiring cliffs for 

 

sleeping and finding water. Like all baboons, the hamadryas baboon is omnivorous and is adapted to its relatively dry habitat. During the wet seasons, the baboon feeds on a variety of foods, including blossoms, fruits, seeds, grasses, rhizomes, corms, wild 

 

 roots, tubers, bark, tree gums and leaves from acacia trees.[11][12] During the dry season, the baboons eat leaves of the Dobera glabra and sisal leaves. Hamadryas baboons also eat eggs, insects, spiders, worms, scorpions, reptiles, birds, and small mammals, including antelope.[12][13]

The hamadryas baboon has an unusual four-level social system called a multilevel society. Most social interaction occurs within small groups called one-male units or harems containing one male and up to 10 females, which the males lead and guard. A harem often includes a younger "follower" male that may be related to the leader.^[13][14][15] Two or more harems unite repeatedly to form clans.^[16] Within clans, 

 

 males are close relatives of one another^[17] and have an age-related dominance hierarchy.^[18][19] Bands are the next level. Two to four clans form bands of up to 400 individuals which usually travel and sleep as a group.^[13][14][19] Males rarely leave their bands, and females are occasionally transferred or traded 

 

 

between bands by males.^[20] Bands may fight with one another over food or territory, and the adult male leaders of the units are the usual combatants.^[13][15] Bands also contain solitary males that are not harem leaders or followers and move freely within the band.^[21] Several bands may come together to form a troop, usually at sleeping cliffs.^[13][14][19]

 

 

The hamadryas baboon is unusual among baboon and macaque species in that its society is strictly patriarchal.^[22] The males limit the movements of the females, herding them with visual threats and grabbing or biting any that wander too far 

 

 away.^[23] Males sometimes raid harems for females, resulting in aggressive fights. Many males succeed in taking a female from another's harem, called a "takeover".^[14][23][24] Visual threats are usually accompanied by these aggressive fights. This 

 would include a quick flashing of the eyelids accompanied by a yawn to show off the teeth. As in many species, infant baboons are taken by the males as hostages during fights. However, males within the same clan tend to be related and respect the social bonds of their kin.^[15][25] In addition, females demonstrate definite preferences for certain males, and rival males heed these preferences.^[26] The less a female favors her 

harem males, the more likely she will be successfully taken by a rival.^[26] Young males, often "follower" males, may start their own harems by maneuvering immature females into following them.^[26] The male may also abduct a young female 

 

by force.^[26] Either way, the male will mate with the female when she matures. Aging males often lose their females to followers and soon lose weight and their hair color changes to brown like a female.^[26] While males in most other baboon species are transferred away from their male relatives and into different troops, male hamadryas baboons remain in their natal clans or bands and have associations with their male kin.^[13][15]

Like other baboons, the hamadryas baboon breeds aseasonally. The dominant male of a one-male unit does most of the mating, though other males may occasionally sneak in copulations, as well.^{[13][15][18][27]} Females do most of the parenting. They nurse and groom the infant and one female in a unit may groom an infant that is not hers. Like all baboons, hamadryas baboons are intrigued by infants and give much attention to them. Dominant male baboons prevent other males from coming into close contact with their 

 

 infants. They also protect the young from predators. The dominant male tolerates the young and will carry and play with them.^[13] When a new male takes over a female, she develops sexual swellings which may be an adaptation that functions to prevent the new male from killing the offspring of the previous male.^[28][29] When males reach puberty, they show a playful interest in young infants.^[13] They will kidnap the infants by luring them away from their harems and inviting them to ride on their backs. This is more often done by "follower" males. This kidnapping can lead to dehydration or starvation for the infant.^[24] The harem leader would retrieve the infants from their kidnappers, which is mostly an act to protect their offspring.^[24]

Because bipedalism is thought to help reduce thermoregulatory stress, research has investigated how baboons deal with water restriction and thermal loads as quadrupeds.^[30] Using implanted data loggers and simulated desert conditions, researchers found baboon internal temperatures increased significantly with water 

 

deprivation.^[30] When water was given to baboons, their internal temperatures dropped quickly.^[30] Therefore, it seems that access to water helps baboons maintain homeothermy and that water restrictions are a major threat to this species.^[30] 

 However, baboons can maintain their plasma volume during water deprivation due to an increase in blood colloid osmotic pressure (COP).^[31] Hamadryas baboons do this by increasing albumin synthesis.^[31] This helps baboons retain fluids when their bodies are experiencing dehydration.

 Hamadryas baboons often appear in ancient Egyptian art, as they were considered sacred to Thoth,^[10] a major and powerful deity with many roles that included being the scribe of the gods. Astennu, attendant to Thoth, is represented as a hamadryas in his roles as recorder of the result of the Weighing of the Heart and 

 

as one of the four hamadryas baboons guarding the lake of fire in Duat, the ancient Egyptian underworld. A predynastic precursor to Astennu was Babi, or "Bull of the Baboons", a bloodthirsty god said to eat the entrails of the unrighteous dead. Babi was also said to give the righteous dead continued virility, and to use his penis as the mast of a boat to convey them to the Egyptian paradise.

 

Sometimes, Thoth himself appears in the form of a hamadryas (often shown carrying the moon on his head), as an alternative to his more common representation as an ibis-headed figure. Hapi, one of the Four Sons of Horus that guarded the organs of the deceased in ancient Egyptian religion, is also represented as 

hamadryas-headed; Hapi protected the lungs, hence the common sculpting of a stone or clay hamadryas head as the lid of the canopic jar that held the lungs and/or represented the protection of the lungs. Hamadryas baboons were revered because certain behaviors that they perform were seen as worshiping the sun.^[10]

Transformation of field and pastureland represents the main threat to the hamadryas baboon; its only natural predators are the striped hyena, spotted hyena, and a diminishing number of African leopards that can still be found in the same area of distribution. Grey wolves are predators of Hamadryas baboons in  

 

Saudi Arabia.^[34] The IUCN Red List listed this species as "least concern" in 2008.^[1] No major range-wide threats exist at present, although locally it may be at risk through loss of habitat due to major agricultural expansion and irrigation projects.^[1] The species occurs in the proposed Yangudi Rassa National Park, the Harar Wildlife Sanctuary, and a number of wildlife reserves in the lower Awash valley and in northern Eritrea.^[1]