THE HOARY MARMOT

 

The hoary marmot (Marmota caligata) is a species of marmot that inhabits the mountains of northwest North America. Hoary marmots live near the tree line on slopes with grasses and forbs to eat and rocky areas for cover.

 

It is the largest North American ground squirrel and is often nicknamed "the whistler" for its high-pitched warning issued to alert other members of the colony to possible danger. The animals are sometimes called "whistle pigs". Whistler, British Columbia, originally London Mountain because of its heavy fogs and rain, was renamed after these animals to help make it more marketable as a resort.^[3] The closest relatives 

 

 

of the species are the yellow-bellied, Olympic, and Vancouver Island marmots, although the exact relationships are unclear.^[4][5]

 

 The hoary marmot is a large, bulky, ground squirrel, with short, heavy limbs, and a broad head. Adults range from 62 to 82 cm (24 to 32 in) in total length, including a 17 to 25 cm (6.7 to 9.8 in) tail. The species is sexually dimorphic, with males being significantly larger than females in most subspecies. Because of their long winter hibernation, during which they survive on fat reserves, the weight of the 

 

animals varies considerably over the course of the year, from an average of 3.75 kg (8.3 lb) in May to around 7 kg (15 lb) in September, for a fully grown adult.^[6] A few fall adult males can commonly range up to a weight of 10 kg (22 lb).^[7] The record sized autumn male specimen attained a mass of nearly 

 

13.5 kg (30 lb), possibly the largest size known for any marmot.^[8] Going on its average size relative to other marmot species, it is slightly smaller on average than the Olympic marmot, similar in size to the Vancouver Island marmot and broadly overlaps in size with several lesser-known Asian marmot species as well.^{[6][9][10][11]}

 

The word "hoary" refers to the silver-gray fur on their shoulders and upper back; the remainder of the upper parts have drab- or reddish-brown fur. The head is black on the upper surface, with a white patch on the muzzle, white fur on the chin and around the lips, and grizzled black or brown fur elsewhere. The feet 

 

and lower legs are black, sometimes with white patches on the fore feet. Marmots have long guard hairs that provide most of the visible colour of their pelage, and a dense, soft underfur that provides insulation. The greyish underparts of the body lack this underfur, and are more sparsely haired than the rest of the body.^[12] Hoary marmots moult in the early to mid summer.^[6]

 

 

The feet have slightly curved claws, which are somewhat larger on the fore feet than on the hind feet. The 

 

feet have hairless pads, enhancing their grip. The tail is long, slightly flattened, and covered with dense fur. Apart from the larger size of the males, both sexes have a similar appearance. Females have five pairs of teats, running from the pectoral to the inguinal regions.^[6

 

The hoary marmot predominantly inhabits mountainous alpine environments to 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) elevation, although coastal population also occur at or near sea level in British Columbia and Alaska.^[6] Hoary marmots occur from southern Washington and central Idaho north, and are found through much of Alaska south of the Yukon River.^[14][6] They live above the tree line, at elevations from sea level to 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), depending on latitude, in rocky terrain or alpine meadows dominated by grasses, sedges, 

 

herbs, and Krummholz forest patches.^[6] Range maps often erroneously depict hoary marmots occurring north of the Yukon River in Alaska, this region is occupied by the Alaska marmot (M. broweri) and not the hoary marmot.^[14] Hoary marmots also occur on several islands in Alaska and fossils dating back to the Pleistocene, including some from islands no longer inhabited by the species.^[15]

 

Hoary marmots are diurnal and herbivorous, subsisting on leaves, flowers, grasses, and sedges. Predators include golden eagles, grizzly and black bears, wolverines, coyotes, red foxes, lynxes, wolves, and cougars. They live in colonies of up to 36 individuals, with a home range averaging about 14 hectares (35 acres). Each colony includes a single, dominant, adult male, up to three adult females, sometimes with a subordinate adult male, and a number of young and subadults up to two years of age.^[6]

 

The marmots hibernate seven to eight months a year in burrows they excavate in the soil, often among or under boulders. Each colony typically maintains a single hibernaculum and a number of smaller burrows, used for sleeping and refuge from predators. The refuge burrows are the simplest and most numerous type, consisting of a single bolt hole 1 to 2 metres (3 ft 

 

  3 in to 6 ft 7 in) deep. Each colony digs an average of five such burrows a year, and a mature colony may have over a hundred. Sleeping burrows and hibernacula are larger and more 

 

 complex, with multiple entrances, deep chambers lined with plant material, and stretching to a depth of about 3.5 metres (11 ft). A colony may have up to 9 regular sleeping burrows, in addition to the larger hibernaculum.^[16] Many forms of social behaviour have been observed among hoary marmots, including play fighting, wrestling, social grooming, and nose-to-nose 

 

 touching. Such activity becomes particularly frequent as hibernation approaches. Interactions with individuals from other colonies are less common, and usually hostile, with females chasing away intruders. Hoary marmots are also vocal animals, with at least seven distinct 

 

types of calls, including chirps, whistles, growls, and whining sounds.^[17] Many of these calls are used as alarms, alerting other animals to potential predators. They also communicate using scent, both by defecation, and by marking rocks or plants using scent glands on their cheeks.^[6]

Hoary marmots frequently sun themselves on rocks, spending as much as 44% of their time in the morning doing so, although they will shelter in their burrows or otherwise seek shade in especially warm weather. They forage for the rest of the day, returning to their burrows to sleep during the night.^[6]

 

 

In areas frequented by people, hoary marmots are not shy. Rather than running away at first sight, they will often go about their business^{[clarification needed]} while being watched.^{[citation needed]}

 

 

Mating occurs after hibernation, and two to four young are born in the spring. Males establish "harems", but may also visit females in other territories.

 

 Hoary marmots breed shortly after,^[18] or even before,^[19] their emergence from hibernation burrows in May and in some areas (such as the eastern Cascade foothills of Washington 

 

State) ^{[citation needed]} as early as February. Courtship consists of sniffing the genital region, followed by mounting, although mounting has 

 

also been observed between females. Females typically raise litters only in alternate years, although both greater and lesser frequencies have been reported on occasion.^[6][19]

 

 

Gestation lasts 25 to 30 days, so the litter of two to five young is born between late May and mid-June.^[18] The young emerge from their birth den at three to four weeks of age, by which time they have a full coat of fur and are already beginning to be weaned.^[20] The young are initially cautious, but begin to exhibit 

 

 

the full range of nonreproductive adult behavior within about four weeks of emerging from the burrow. Subadults initially remain with their birth colony, but typically leave at two years of age, becoming fully sexually mature the following year.^[6]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE AMERICAN BADGER

 

 

 The American badger (Taxidea taxus) is a North American badger, somewhat similar in appearance to the European badger. It is found in the western and central United States, northern Mexico, and south-central Canada to certain areas of southwestern British Columbia.
American badger habitat is typefied by open grasslands with available prey (such as mice, squirrels, and groundhogs). The species prefers areas such as prairie regions with sandy loam soils where it can dig more easily for its prey.

 

The American badger is a member of the Mustelidae, a diverse family of carnivorous mammals that also includes the weasel, otter, ferret, and wolverine.^[2] The American badger belongs to the Taxidiinae, one of three subfamilies of badgers - the other two being the Melinae (9 species, including the Eurasian badger) and the Mellivorinae (honey badger). The American badger's closest relative is the prehistoric Chamitataxus.
 

 

Recognized subspecies include: the nominate subspecies T. t. taxus, found in central Canada and central US; T. t. jacksoni, found in the southern Great Lakes region including southern Ontario; T. t. jeffersoni, in British Columbia and the western US; and T. t. berlandieri, in the southwestern US and northern Mexico.^[3][4] Ranges of subspecies overlap considerably, with intermediate forms occurring in the areas of overlap.
 

 

In Mexico, this animal is sometimes called tlalcoyote. The Spanish word for badger is tejón, but in Mexico this word is also used to describe the coati. This can lead to confusion, as both coatis and badgers are found in Mexico.

 The American badger has most of the general characteristics common to badgers; with stocky and low-slung bodies with short, powerful legs, they are identifiable by their huge foreclaws (measuring up to 5 cm 

 

 

in length) and distinctive head markings. Measuring generally between 60 to 75 cm (23.6 to 29.5 inches) in length, males of the species are slightly larger than females (with an average weight of roughly 7 kg (15.5 pounds) for females and up to almost 9 kg (19.8 pounds) for males). Northern subspecies such as T. 

 

 

t. jeffersonii are heavier than the southern subspecies. In the fall, when food is plentiful, adult male badgers can exceed 11.5 kg (25.3 pounds).^[5]
Except for the head, the American badger is covered with a grizzled, brown, black and white coat of coarse hair or fur, giving almost a mixed brown-tan appearance. The coat aids in camouflage in grassland 

 

 

 habitat. Its triangular face shows a distinctive black and white pattern, with brown or blackish "badges" marking the cheeks and a white stripe extending from the nose to the base of the head. In the subspecies T. t. berlandieri, the white head stripe extends the full length of the body, to the base of the tail.^[6]

 

 

 

 Except for the head, the American badger is covered with a grizzled, brown, black and white coat of coarse hair or fur, giving almost a mixed brown-tan appearance. The coat aids in camouflage in grassland habitat. Its triangular face shows a distinctive black and white pattern, with brown or blackish "badges" marking the cheeks and a white stripe extending from the nose to the base of the head. In the subspecies T. t. berlandieri, the white head stripe extends the full length of the body, to the base of the tail.^[6]

The American badger is a fossorial carnivore. It preys predominantly on pocket gophers (Geomyidae), ground squirrels (Spermophilus), moles (Talpidae), marmots (Marmota), prairie dogs (Cynomys), pika (Ochotona), woodrats (Neotoma), kangaroo rats (Dipodomys), deer mice (Peromyscus), and voles (Microtus), often digging to pursue prey into their dens, and sometimes plugging tunnel entrances with 

 

 

objects.^[7] They also prey on ground-nesting birds, such as the bank swallow or sand martin (Riparia riparia) and burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia), and lizards, amphibians, carrion, fish, skunks (Mephitis and Spilogale), insects, including bees and honeycomb, and some plant foods such as corn (Zea mais), peas, green beans, mushrooms and other fungi, and sunflower seeds (Helianthus).

American badgers are generally nocturnal, but have been reported to be active during the day. In remote areas with no human encroachment, badgers are routinely observed foraging during the 

 

day. Seasonally, however, a badger observed during daylight hours in the Spring months of late March to early May often represents a female badger, foraging during daylight to then return and stay 

 

with her young at night. Badgers do not hibernate, but may become less active in winter. A badger may spend much of the winter in cycles of

 

Badger burrows that are abandoned may then be occupied by foxes, skunks or animals of similar size. Abandoned badger burrows also provide ready-made homes for burrowing owl, California Tiger Salamander and California Red-Legged Frog. A misconception about badgers and coyotes is reflected in the human projected perception that badgers and coyotes form a mutually beneficial relationship in 

 

hunting and foraging. In fact, the benefit is for the coyote. Coyotes are not as effective in digging prey out of burrows and will remain in proximity to a foraging badger, to then capture prey if it escapes the badger's claw-paws. Widely reported has been the misconception that badgers and coyotes hunt together. 

 

Badgers are solitary foragers and coyotes who observe badgers in the process of seeking prey will position themselves in proximity in order to attempt to capture any prey that eludes a badger in its attempt to escape.

 

Badgers are normally solitary animals for most of the year, but are thought to expand their territories in the breeding season to seek out mates. Males may breed with more than one female. Mating occurs in late summer and early fall. American badgers experience 

 

delayed implantation. Pregnancies are suspended until December or as late as February. Young are born from late March to early April.^[4] Litters range from one to five young,^[8] averaging about three.^[9]

 

Badgers are born blind, furred, and helpless.^[4] Eyes open at four to six weeks. The female feeds her 

 

 

young solid foods prior to complete weaning, and for a few weeks thereafter.^[9] Young American badgers first emerge from the den on their own at five to six weeks old.^[8][10] Families usually break up and juveniles disperse from the end of June to August; young American badgers leave their mothers as early as late May or June.^[10] Juvenile dispersal movements are erratic.^[8]

 

Most female American badgers become pregnant for the first time after they are a year old. A minority of females four to five months old ovulate and a few become pregnant. Males usually do not breed until their second year.^[4]
 

 

Major causes of adult American badger mortality include, first and foremost, loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation, preventing the ability to move through a normal range, and then automobiles, ranchers and farmers (by various methods), sport shooting, and fur trapping. Identifying habitat areas preferred by adult female badgers for breeding, birthing and raising young are critically important to support biodiversity in 

 

 

the context of climate change impacts, loss of habitat and competition among species for habitat areas as coastal wildlife migrate inland, seeking cooler temperatures in upland habitat areas that often represent established habitat for American Badger. Large predators occasionally kill American badgers.^[8] The average longevity in the wild is 9–10 years and the record is 14 years;^[11] a captive American badger lived at least 15 years and five months.^[8]

American badgers occur primarily in grasslands and open areas with grasslands, which can include parklands, farms, and treeless areas with friable soil and a supply of rodent prey.^[12][13] They may also be found in forest glades and meadows, marshes, brushy areas, hot deserts, and mountain meadows. They are sometimes found at elevations up to 12,000 feet (3,600 m) but are usually found in the Sonoran and Transition life zones (which are at elevations lower and warmer than those characterized by coniferous 

 

forests).^[9] In Arizona, they occur in desert scrub and semidesert grasslands.^[14] In California, American badgers are primarily able to survive through a combination of open grasslands of agricultural lands, protected land trust and open space lands, and even regional and state and national park lands with grassland habitat. An identified population in South Sonoma County fragilely survives with areas of abundant prey, but threatened from fragmentation. The Sonoma County badger population also includes 

 

some protected and private lands near the Sonoma Coast. Badgers are occasionally found in open chaparral (with less than 50% plant cover) and riparian zones. They are not usually found in mature chaparral.^[15] In Manitoba aspen parklands, American badger abundance was positively associated with the abundance of Richardson's ground squirrels (Spermophilus richardsonii).^[16]
American badger use of home range varies with season and sex. Different areas of the home range are used more frequently at different seasons and usually are related to prey availability. Males generally have 

 

 

larger home ranges than females. In a study almost 40 years ago, radiotransmitter-tagged American badgers had an average annual home range of 2,100 acres (850 ha). The home range of one female was 1,790 acres (725 ha) in summer, 131 acres (53 ha) in fall, and 5 acres (2 ha) in winter.^[17] Lindzey reported average home ranges of 667 to 1,550 acres (270–627 ha).^[18] In 2014, severe fragmentation of American Badger habitat from over-development of land and blockage of wildlife movement areas equate 

 

 

to the range of a badger being significantly influenced by available land for habitat and foraging as well as the ability to move within a preferred range. Direct observations in Sonoma County, documenting habitat and badger sightings and foraging, reflect various ranges within the fragmented habitat areas from less 

 

 

than 1/2 mile to approximately 4 miles. Within these areas, the availability of prey and a fresh water source are key factors for the preferred habitat areas and ability to survive. Identifying and conserving habitat areas where there is year-round activity, along with identified burrowing patterns and observations of female badger territory for birthing and raising young have become critical factors in survival of the species.
 

 

Estimated density of American badgers in Utah scrub-steppe was one per square mile (2.6 km²), or 10 dens per square mile (assuming a single American badger has 10 dens in current or recent use).^[4]
The American badger in Ontario, is restricted primarily to the extreme southwestern portion of the province – largely along the north shore of Lake Erie in open areas generally associated with agriculture and woodland edges. There have been a few reports from the Bruce-Grey region.^[19]

American badgers are most commonly found in treeless areas, including tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, grass-dominated meadows and fields within forested habitats, and shrub-steppe communities. In the Southwest, plant indicators of the Sonoran and Transition life zones (relatively low, dry elevations) 

 

 

commonly associated with American badgers include creosotebush (Larrea tridentata), junipers (Juniperus spp.), gambel oak (Quercus gambelii), willows (Salix spp.), cottonwoods (Populus spp.), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), grasses, and sagebrushes (Artemisia spp.).^[9]
 

 

 

In Colorado 37 years ago, American badgers were common in grass–forb and ponderosa pine habitats.^[20] In Kansas, they are common in tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), and Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans).^[21] In Montana 24 years ago, badgers were present in Glacier National Park in fescue (Festuca spp.) grasslands.^[22] In Manitoba, they occur in grassland extensions within aspen (Populus spp.) parklands.^[16]

American badgers enlarge foraged out gopher holes or other prey holes or burrows to create a burrow for sleeping and concealment, protection from weather, and natal dens; burrows range from about 4 feet to 10 feet in depth and 4 feet to 6 feet in width. A female American Badger may create 2 to 4 burrows in proximity with a connecting tunnel for concealment and safety for her young. Displaced soil from digging 

 

out the burrow characteristically appears in front of the burrow entrance, and a view from a distance reveals a mound-like roof of the burrow, with the living and concealment space created underneath the raised-roof appearing mound. During summer and autumn, badgers range more frequently, with mating season generally in November, and burrowing patterns reflect 1 to 3 burrows may be dug from foraged out prey holes in a day, used for a day to a week, and then abandoned, with possible returns later, and other 

 

 

small wildlife utilizing abandoned burrows in the interim. Where prey is particularly plentiful, they will reuse dens,^[9] especially in the fall, sometimes for a few days at a time. In winter, a single den may be used for most of the season.^[4] Natal dens are dug by the female and are used for extended periods, but litters may be moved, probably to allow the mother to forage in new areas close to the nursery. Natal dens are usually larger and more complex than diurnal dens.^[8]

The American badger is an aggressive animal and has few natural enemies. Predation on smaller individuals by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), coyotes,^[4] cougars (Felis concolor), and bobcats (Lynx rufus) have been reported.^[23] Bears (Ursus spp.) and gray wolves (Canis lupus) occasionally kill American badgers.^[8]

In May 2000, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed both the Taxidea taxus jacksoni and the T. t. jeffersonii subspecies as an endangered species in Canada.^[24] The California Department of Fish and Game designated the American badger as a California species of special concern.^[25]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

^{American badger range}