The erect-crested penguin (Eudyptes sclateri; Māori: Tawaki nana hī)[2] is a penguin endemic to the New Zealand region[3] and only breeds on the Bounty and Antipodes Islands.[4]
It has black upper parts, white underparts and a yellow eye stripe and
crest. It spends the winter at sea and little is known about its
biology and breeding habits. Populations are believed to have declined
during the last few decades of the twentieth century,[5] and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed it as being "endangered".[6]
Breeding pair of Erect-crested penguins at their nest
This is a small-to-medium-sized, yellow-crested, black-and-white
penguin, at 50–70 cm (20–28 in) and weighing 2.5–6 kg (5.5–13.2 lb). The
male is slightly larger than the female and as in most crested penguins
has a larger bill. It has bluish-black to jet black upper parts and
white underparts, and a broad, bright yellow eyebrow-stripe which
extends over the eye to form a short, erect crest.[1]
With a mean body mass in males of 6.38 kg (14.1 lb) (sample size 22)
and females of 5.4 kg (12 lb) (sample size 22), the erect-crested
penguin is the largest of the crested penguin species and as the fourth
heaviest extant penguin, being nearly as heavy on average as the gentoo penguin.[7]
Its biology is poorly studied and only little information about
the species has emerged in the past decades. The only recent study
conducted on the Antipodes Islands focused on aspects of the mate
choice.[8] Research on the species is hampered by logistics and restrictive permitting by the New Zealand Department of Conservation.[9]
Mixed colony of Erect-crested penguins and
Erect-crested penguins breed on the Bounty and Antipodes Islands. Previous records of small breeding populations have also been reported from Campbell Island and the Auckland Islands;[4] in the 1940s a breeding pair was documented on the Otago Peninsula on the New Zealand mainland.[11]
The species spends extended times at sea during the pre-moult period
(February–March) as well as over the winter months (March–August).[4] Individuals have been found as far away as the Falkland Islands and it is also a vagrant to Argentina, Antarctica and Australia.
Erect-crested penguins nest in large colonies on rocky terrain.
On the Antipodes Islands, the penguins breed in mono-specific colonies
or sometimes sympatrically with Southern Rockhopper penguins. On the Bounty Islands, Erect-crested penguins breed in large mixed colonies with Salvin's albatross.
Erect-crested penguins breed in two-egg clutches from the months
between September and late January. The first egg to be laid is
typically 25% to 70% smaller than the second egg. The extreme difference
in egg sizes has demonstrated asynchronous incubation habits, with the
larger egg being granted more accommodation and priority than the
smaller egg.[12]
Populations of this species are believed to have declined drastically
since the 1940s. Population estimates from the late 1970s put the total
numbers of erect-crested penguins breeding on the Bounty and Antipodes
Islands at 230,000 breeding pairs although the accuracy of these figures
have recently been questioned.[4] Nevertheless, there is ample evidence for substantial population declines in the second half of the 20th century[4] although these declines seem to have slowed in recent decades.[6] The current population is estimated at 150,000 mature individuals and is being listed as an endangered species on the IUCN Red List;[6] the erect-crested penguin is listed as endangered and granted protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.[13]
The spotted shag or pārekareka (Phalacrocorax punctatus) is a species of cormorantendemic to New Zealand. Though originally classified as Phalacrocorax punctatus,
it is sufficiently different in appearance from typical members of that
genus that for a time it was placed in a separate genus, Stictocarbo, along with a similar species, the Pitt shag. Subsequent genetic studies show that the spotted shag's lineage is nested within the typical shags.
The spotted shag was initially called the 'crested shag' by Johann Forster. He shot the bird while hunting with the English Naval Explorer James Cook during the second voyage of James Cook. Swedish naturalist Anders Sparrman was Forster's assistant, he described the spotted shag in 1786 as Pelicanus punctatus.[2][3]
French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte erected the separate genus Stictocarbo for it in 1855. It was later returned to its original genus.
In 1930, the Stewart Island population was described as a separate species, the blue shag (Stictocarbo steadi), distinguished by its narrow rather than broad white stripe on its head and neck.[4]
A 2014 molecular study by Kennedy and Spencer found that the
spotted shag belongs to a clade of Old World cormorants. Its closest
relative is the Pitt shag (P. featherstoni), and their common ancestor split from a lineage giving rise to the black-faced, pied and little black cormorants of Australia.[5]
Juvenile, note spots on back and wings
The spotted shag is a medium-sized marine bird. They are usually
between 64 and 74 centimetres (25 and 29 in) high and weigh between 700
and 1,200 grams (25 and 42 oz). Their bodies are very slim and they have
a very distinctive black, decurved, double crest growing on their nape
and their forehead. They have a long, slender, orange-brown coloured,
hooked bill and yellow-orange feet. The feathers on their bodies are
grey and blue. The adults have small black spots on their backs and
wings, which gave them their name. Their irises are brown, while the
ring around the iris is blue. They have a small patch of bare facial
skin between their eyes and bill, which turns green-blue just before
breeding season. Furthermore, non-
breeding adults do not have crests[6] and have paler underparts.[7] The males and females do look very alike, there is almost no sexual dimorphism.[8] However, the males and females can be told apart by their calls and mating behavior.[7] Normally they do not produce much noise, only when they are at resting, roosting and nesting areas.[9] When they produce sounds, it can be heard as loud grunts.[7]
Spotted shags usually fly in V-formation and it is hard to tell males
and female apart. In flight, they look slender and pale, while their
rump and tail look darker.[7]
It is hard to estimate the total number of spotted shags in New Zealand;
estimates are between 10,000 and 50,000 breeding pairs (20,000 to
100,000 birds). In the past, the number of spotted shags has been
limited by the availability of food, which caused an increase in number
during the late 1980s.[7]
In flight, in breeding plumage (note the double crests)
The spotted shag is endemic to New Zealand. It breeds only on the coastlines of New Zealand and some of the offshore islands,[7][10] being mainly found on the South Island. High numbers can be found on the west coast and near Stewart Island, but they also inhabit some places on the North Island.
During breeding, they can mostly be found on their breeding sites, but
otherwise they are more dispersed to other coastal areas.[7] Large colonies can be found around Banks Peninsula near Christchurch, and in a rocky outcrop named the 'Shag Rock' in Wellington Harbour.[8] Phalacrocorax punctatus are locally common, with estimates of numbers nationwide varying from 10,000 to 50,000 pairs.[11]
This species prefers to nest on cliffs along rocky coasts where
they occupy ledges or cracks, forming colonies of over a thousand birds.[10]
They seldom go into freshwater environments or enclosed estuaries
(Heather & Robertson, 2000). Seaweed is often used in lining the
nests, the foundation of which is made of sticks.[12]
The spotted shag lays one to four (usually three) blue eggs with
chalky covering, with both parents continuously guarding the chicks for
about 30 days. Chicks do not leave the nest until they are at least 52
days old. They may breed all year round.[13]
When the spotted shag hatches, it is completely blind, naked and weak
and has very poor coordination. They will beg their parents for food,
but are not able to direct it. Between day 4 and 6, their eyes start to
open and between day 7 and 11 their begging starts to become more
directed towards the parent. They also become a lot stronger and they
start calling loudly. Down starts to cover their body and is becoming
thicker between day 12 and 17. Then, they also become more active and
start flapping their wings. Between day 18 and 23, the chicks start to
move more rapidly, though clumsily. By this time, the tail feathers have
grown to about 1 cm. Between day 24 and 30, the
spotted contour
feathers are developing on the top surface of their wings. Some chicks
start to leave the nests. Between day 30 and 35, the birds have almost
reached adult size, but the down is still covering their bodies. The
contour feathers will appear between day 35 and 40 and will be complete
between day 40 and 50. By this time, the tail is also fully grown and
many birds will have left the nests to form small groups.
[14]
Later in life, they will form monogamous breeding pairs. Breeding
colonies can sometimes consist of even 700 pairs. These pairs lay 3 to 4
blue eggs and the tasks of incubation and the rearing of the chicks are
shared.[9]
Both parents feed the young by the ordinary manner in the nest. The
fast flight of spotted shags up to a cliff-side perch makes its
approach to nest spectacular.[15]
After breeding, most spotted shags remain within 200 kilometres of
their breeding grounds. They form large winter flocks of up to 2000
birds, often flying in long lines between their feeding and roosting
areas.[11]
It is common to find red-billed gull
hanging around the spotted shag colony. Also, it is easy to find that
the gulls' nesting colony are built nearby. The fact is that after the
young spotted shag have been fed, parents have to leave nests to find
more food to raise their young shags. At this moment, gulls forthwith
fly to the nest and standing on the edge of it, their whole manner and
tone of voice convey the impression of swearing. The young immediately
disgorge some of their food, which the gull promptly eats.[16]
Spotted shags are able to feed up to 16 km offshore. Their main diet consists of small fish and marine invertebrates,[9] but they barely affect the New Zealand fish stock.[6]
The birds catch fish by diving from the sea surface and propelling
themselves underwater with their webbed feet. They dive for an average
of about 30 seconds,[6] usually resting on the surface for 10 to 15 seconds between dives.[11] The longest dive ever recorded was 70 seconds.[7]
Spotted shags often carry some small stones in their gizzard, which
might function as to grind food or to avoid unwanted gut parasites.[7]
Sometimes they may be seen fishing singly, but more often a number are
seen together, fishing by long dives or following a shoal.[12]
Some birds are accidentally caught by fishing nets and drown.[7] Spotted shags might be affected by the lice species Eidmanniella pellucida (Rudow, 1869) and Pectinopygus punctatus (Timmermann, 1964) (Pilgrim & Palma, 1982). Furthermore, they might be affected by the following tick species: Carios capensis (Neumann, 1901), Ixodes eudyptidis (Maskell, 1885), Ixodes jacksoni (Hoogstraal, 1967) that only appears on the spotted shag and Ixodes uriae (White, 1852) (Heath et al., 2011). They also might carry the flea species Parapsyllus longicornis
(Enderlein, 1901) (Part & Part, 1990). The spotted shag does not
appear to be subject to significant predation and disease. A parasite
that may affect it is Contracaecum spiculigerum, Eustrongylides sp.[17]
The species is considered to be not threatened.[18] However, although the species used to be prevalent in the Hauraki Gulf, their populations have undergone a significant decline in the last century.[19]
DNA analysis has recently indicated that the birds originating from the
northern parts of New Zealand are genetically distinct thus increasing
the concern over the continuing decline of the species in and around
Auckland.[19][20]
In 1988, New Zealand released a series of postage stamps devoted to
the native birds of the country. The spotted shag was featured on the
60-cent stamp.[8]
The Pitt shag (Phalacrocorax featherstoni), also known as the Pitt Island shag or Featherstone's shag, is a species of bird in the family Phalacrocoracidae. It is endemic to Pitt Island where its natural habitats are open seas
and rocky shores. The bird with the color of a dark body, gray chest,
yellow eyes and feet can be found in small groups in their breeding
habitat or alone within 18 km from their territory searching for food.
The species was close to extinction in 1905 but actions of conservation
have been done ever since. The Pitt shag is threatened by habitat loss
due to predation and climate change causing a decline from 1997 to
2012, but there is a recovery plan by the Department of Conservation.
Members of the shag family belong to three groups, based on the color
of their feet: black, yellow or pink. Outside New Zealand, the
black-footed shags are better known as cormorants. The Pitt shag belongs
to the yellow footed group. They are about 63 cm in length and weigh
650–1300 g, with a slim build. The Pitt shag has a yellow colored detail
around the eyes, light gray at the neck and chest, and the rest of the
head, back, wings and tail with shades of black and navy.[2]
From the Spotted shag (Phalacrocorax punctatus), the Pitt shag became a subspecies.[2]
This representative of the shags in the Chatham Group was discovered by
H.H. Travers in 1871. Buller dedicated the species to Dr Featherston,
superintendent of the Province of Wellington at that time.[3] The Spotted shag and the Pitt shag have been determined as a part of the Phalacrocorax genus considering a DNA study.[4]
When apart from the group the Pitt shag is quiet, but during
mating season males make noises of grunting, gargling and ticking while
females remain silent.[2]
Shags find food on their own, traveling up to 18 km from their territory to feed on mostly small fish and when possible snails, worms and crustaceans found flying over waters and shores.[5]
From August to December, 2 to 3 year old Pitt shags gather in
small crowds on the rocky shores and cliffs of the coast, protecting
themselves against predators and weather. With up to 40 pairs of birds, nests
are created out of small branches, plants and seaweed, and are
eventually found with about 2 to 4 pale bluish-white colored eggs.
Parents take turns incubating the eggs for about 30 days, once hatched a
single parent will stay with the chicks for two weeks, then both
parents will search and feed their chicks until they fledge at around 6 to 8 weeks.[4]
Apparently never a common species, it was reported as nearly extinct in 1905. The Department of Conservation does have a recovery plan for this bird.
The Pitt shag is claimed endangered[6]
due to its loss of breeding habitat and rapidly declining, small
population. Studies show a record of 729 pairs found from 1997 to 1998,
547 pairs from 2003 to 2004, and 434 pairs from 2011 to 2012.[5] With nests planted along coastal cliffs predators are not much of a concern, although Feral Cats, Black Rats, Brown Rats, Common Brushtail Possum and Weka are known to be possible threats. The threat of human activity is more evident as it causes climate change, leading to changes in their environment and resources. These activities include introduction of predators, bycatch in the fishing industry, bird hunting, and crayfish pots.[5]
Conservation actions done specifically for the Pitt shag are not
very apparent, although other works on the Chatham Islands have been
done such as withdrawing sheep and cattle from the South East and
Mangere Islands in 1961 and 1968, and fencing coastal habitats to avoid
possible interference. Actions that are being considered are measuring
the whole adult population with intervals of 10 years starting from the
year a plan is created, and in each year study the pattern of two
communities. Other plans include analyzing the effect of rock lobster
fishing, additional fencing, continuous studying of the breeding and
foraging of the bird, and withdrawing feral cats, Wekas, sheep, cattle
and pigs concerning Pitt and Chatham Islands.[5]
The little pied cormorant, little shag or kawaupaka (Microcarbo melanoleucos) is a common species of Australasianwaterbird, found around the coasts, islands, estuaries, and inland waters of Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, Timor-Leste and Indonesia, and around the islands of the south-western Pacific and the subantarctic.
It is a small short-billed cormorant usually black above and white
below with a yellow bill and small crest, although a mostly black
white-throated form predominates in New Zealand. Three subspecies are
recognised. Until recently, most authorities referred to this species as
Phalacrocorax melanoleucos.
In New South Wales
The species is known as the little pied cormorant in Australia, and as the little shag or by the Māori name of kawaupaka in New Zealand. The term white-throated shag is also reserved for the melanistic form there.[2]
In India
The little pied cormorant was originally described by French naturalist Louis Pierre Vieillot in 1817. In 1931, American ornithologist James Lee Peters was the first to consider this in a separate genus along with the pygmy cormorant (M. pygmaeus), little cormorant (M. niger), and the long-tailed cormorant (M. africanus).
Since then, molecular work by Sibley and Ahlquist showed the little
pied and long-tailed cormorants formed a group which had diverged early
on from other cormorants. This group of "micro-cormorants" assumed the
genus name Microcarbo, initially described by French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1855.[3] The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek mikros "small", and Latincarbo "black". However, most older authorities refer to this species as Phalacrocorax melanoleucus.
In the now-extinct Waray language spoken along the Adelaide River in North Arnhem Land, the species was known as mawa.[4]
Wing drying pose
The little pied cormorant is a small cormorant measuring 56–58 cm
(22–23 in) with a shorter 3 cm (1.2 in) bill and longer tail than the little black cormorant; it has a small black crest. It is found in two morphs in New Zealand. Subspecies melanoleucos and brevicauda are found only in a pied morph, black (with a slight green tinge) above and white beneath. This is also found in subspecies brevirostris,
but in this form the melanistic morph is much more common. In this form
the entire plumage is black with a greenish tinge except for the sides
of the head, chin, throat and upper neck; the bill is yellow with black
on top. Intermediate forms are also found.[2]
The pied form is glossy black above with white face, underparts
and thighs. The bill and bare skin around the face are yellow. In both
forms the legs and feet are black.[5] The pied form is rare in New Zealand, and is most common there in Northland, where it makes up one in every four birds or so.[2]
Chicks have dark brown down, with pied morph having patches of
paler down. Immature birds are a dull blackish brown, with pied morph
birds having paler underparts.[2]
The little pied cormorant makes a low cooing during courtship.[2]
The species ranges across New Zealand, from Stewart Island to Northland,[2]
and across mainland Australia (although not in the arid interior of the
west of the country) and Tasmania. It is also present in Papua New Guinea, Palau, Timor-Leste, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu. In eastern Indonesia, the little pied cormorant's range includes Sulawesi, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku Islands, and Western New Guinea, with non-breeding birds recorded in Java, Bali, and once off the coast of East Kalimantan.[5] Widespread and common, it lives near bodies of water such as swamps, lakes, lagoons, estuaries and the coastline.[2][5]
The little pied cormorant is a benthic
feeder, i.e. it finds its prey on the sea floor. It is a solitary
feeder, normally diving in relatively shallow water, often near the
shore. Dive times are short, around 15 to 20 seconds, with recovery
times on the surface of 5 to 10 seconds unless prey are being swallowed.
It takes a variety of fish prey but an unusually high proportion
(nearly 30% by weight on average, and up to 80% in some individuals) of crustaceans. In New Zealand waters it is most often seen preying on the local flounder and other small flatfish.
Eels and insect larvae are also consumed. These are brought to the
surface to be swallowed: the bird will sometimes put a fish down on the
surface of the water in order to re-orient it and swallow it head first.
Because of this habit, they suffer some kleptoparasitism from red-billed gulls.
Breeding occurs once a year in spring or early summer in southern
areas of its range (southern Australia and New Zealand), and after the
monsoon in tropical regions.[7] The nest is a platform built of branches and sticks, often still green with leaves in the forks of trees, usually eucalypts
that are standing in water. Nests are often located near other
waterbirds such as other cormorants, herons, ibises or spoonbills. Four
or five pale blue oval eggs measuring 46 x 31 mm are laid. The eggs are covered with a thin layer of lime,
giving them a matte white coated appearance. They become increasingly
stained with faeces, as does the nest, over the duration of the breeding
season.[8]
Breeding pair of Erect-crested penguins at their nest
Mixed colony of Erect-crested penguins and 
Wing drying pose
