THE KINKAJOU

The kinkajou (/ˈkɪŋkədʒuː/ KING-kə-joo) (Potos flavus) is a rainforest mammal of the family Procyonidae related to olingos, coatis, raccoons, and the ringtail and cacomistle. It is the only member of the genus Potos and is also known as the "honey bear" (a name that it shares with the sun bear). Kinkajous may be mistaken for ferrets or monkeys, but are not closely related to either.
Native to Central America and South America, this mostly frugivorous, arboreal mammal is not an endangered species, though it is seldom seen by people because of its strict nocturnal habits. However, they are hunted for the pet trade, for their fur (to make wallets and horse saddles) and for their meat. The species has been included in Appendix III of CITES by Honduras, which means that exports from Honduras require an export permit and exports from other countries require a certificate of origin or re-export.^[2] They may live up to 40 years in captivity.

 

 

 

Size and appearance

An adult kinkajou weighs 1.4–4.6 kg (3–10 lb). The adult body length is 40–60 cm (16–24 in); in addition to body length, the length of the prehensile tail is 40–60 cm (16–24 in).^[3] The kinkajou's woolly fur consists of an outer coat of gold (or brownish-gray) overlapping a gray undercoat. It has large eyes and small ears. It also has short legs with five toes on each foot and sharp claws.^[4][5]

 

 

 

Range and habitat 

Kinkajous range from east and south of the Sierra Madres in Mexico, throughout Central America to Bolivia east of the Andes and the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil. Their altitudinal range is from sea level to 2500 m. They are found in closed-canopy tropical forests, including lowland rainforest, montane forest, dry forest, gallery forest and secondary forest. Deforestation is thus a potential threat to the species.^[1]

 

 

Diet

Kinkajou skull

Although the kinkajou is classified in the order Carnivora and has sharp teeth, its omnivorous diet consists mainly of fruit, particularly figs.^[6] Studies have shown that 90% of their diet consists of (primarily ripe) fruit. To eat softer fruits they hold it with their forepaws, then scoop out the succulent pulp with their tongue. They may play an important role in seed dispersal. Leaves, flowers, and various herbs make up much of the other 10% of their diet.^[7] They sometimes eat insects, particularly ants. It has been suggested, without direct evidence, that they may occasionally eat bird eggs and small vertebrates.^[7] Their frugivorous habits are actually convergent with those of (diurnal) spider monkeys.^[7]
The kinkajou's slender five-inch extrudable tongue helps the animal to obtain fruit and to lick nectar from flowers, so that it sometimes acts as a pollinator. (Nectar is also sometimes obtained by eating entire flowers.) Although captive specimens will avidly eat honey (hence the name "honey bear"), honey has not yet been observed in the diet of wild kinkajous.^{[citation needed]}

Phylogeny

Olingos are similar to the kinkajou in morphology and habits. However, genetic studies have shown that kinkajous were an early offshoot of the ancestral procyonid line and are not closely related to any of the other extant procyonids, to which they are a sister group.^[8][9][10] This divergence is thought to have occurred about 22.6 million years ago.^[9] The similarities between the kinkajou and olingos are thus an example of parallel evolution; the closest relatives of the olingos are actually the coatis.^[8][9][10] The kinkajou is distinguished from olingos by its prehensile tail, its foreshortened muzzle, its extrudable tongue, and its lack of anal scent glands.^[11] The only other carnivoran with a prehensile tail is the binturong of Southeast Asia.
Kinkajous evolved in Central America and invaded the formerly isolated continent of South America several million years ago, as part of the Great American Interchange, when formation of the Isthmus of Panama made it possible to do so.^[8]

 

 

Behavior

Kinkajou skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology

Potos flavus

Kinkajous spend most of their life in trees, to which they are particularly well adapted.^[12] Like raccoons, kinkajous' remarkable manipulatory abilities rival those of primates. The kinkajou has a short-haired, fully prehensile tail (like some New World monkeys), which it uses as a "fifth hand" in climbing. It does not use its tail for grasping food. It can rotate its ankles and feet 180°, making it easy for the animal to run backward over tree limbs and climb down trees headfirst.^[12] Scent glands near the mouth, on the throat, and on the belly allow kinkajous to mark their territory and their travel routes. Kinkajous sleep in family units and groom one another.^[13] While they are usually solitary when foraging, they occasionally forage in small groups, and sometimes associate with olingos (which are also frugivorous).^[14]
A nocturnal animal, the kinkajou's peak activity is usually between about 7:00 PM and midnight, and again an hour before dawn. During daylight hours, kinkajous sleep in tree hollows or in shaded tangles of leaves, avoiding direct sunlight.
Kinkajous breed throughout the year, giving birth to one or occasionally two small babies after a gestation period of 112 to 118 days.

 

 

As pets

Yawning kinkajou in a Costa Rican animal shelter

Kinkajous are sometimes kept as exotic pets. They are playful, generally quiet, docile, and have little odor. However, they can occasionally be aggressive. Kinkajous dislike sudden movements, noise, and being awake during the day. An agitated kinkajou may emit a scream and attack, usually clawing its victim and sometimes biting deeply. In 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that pet kinkajous in the United States can be carriers (fecal-oral route) of the raccoon roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis, which is capable of causing severe morbidity and even death in humans, if the brain is infected.^[15]
In El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras pet kinkajous are commonly called micoleón, meaning "lion monkey". In Peru pet kinkajous are commonly referred to as "lirón". The lirón is often described as a "bear-monkey" or "bear-monkey hybrid".
They live an average of about 23 years in captivity, with a maximum recorded life span of 41 years.^[16]


 

 

THE ANGONOKA TORTOISE

The angonoka tortoise (Astrochelys yniphora) is a critically endangered species of tortoise endemic to Madagascar.^[4] It is also known as the angonoka, ploughshare tortoise, Madagascar tortoise, or Madagascar angulated tortoise.^[1]

 

Taxonomy

This species was originally described in 1885 by French zoologist Léon Vaillant, who proposed it as the species Testudo yniphora based on the distinguished shape of the anterior part of the plastron.^[5]
The angonoka tortoise (A. yniphora) and the radiated tortoise (A. radiata) are the only species in the genus Astrochelys. Astrochelys is attributed to John Edward Gray, who used the name in his 1873 book Hand-list of the specimens of shield reptiles in the British Museum.^[6][7] The parent family for Astrochelys is Testudinidae, the tortoise family.^[2]
The name angonoka comes from the Malagasy word used as the local name of the species.^[8] The alternative common name, ploughshare tortoise, refers to the appearance of the gular scute of the plastron.^[9]

Description

The carapace is highly domed and light brown in colour with prominent growth rings on each scute. The outer parts of the vertebral are a darker brown.^[10] The gular scute of the plastron projects forward between the front legs and curves upward toward the neck.
Males are larger than females, reaching a carapace length up to 17 in (43 cm).^[11] The average length of an adult male angonoka tortoise is 414.8 mm (16.33 in) and the average weight is 10.3 kg (23 lb). Females measure at a 370.1 mm (14.57 in) average and weigh 8.8 kg (19 lb) on average.^[1]

Distribution and habitat

  Angonoka tortoise range

In the wild, this species is only found in Madagascar, where it is endemic to the dry forests in the Baly Bay area of northwestern Madagascar, near the town of Soalala (including Baie de Baly National Park).^[2][12][13] The distribution is 25 to 60 km² (9.7 to 23.2 sq mi) in range around Baly Bay.^[1]
The Baly Bay region is made up of savanna, mangrove swamps, and dry deciduous forest. They make use of bamboo-scrub habitat which is made up of different types of shrubs, savanna grasses, bamboo, and open areas with no vegetation. The flora includes shrubbery usually under 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height, such as Bauhinia and Terminalia species, and Perrierbambus madagascariensis bamboo, which forms dense thickets. The elevation of this area is under 50 m (160 ft) above sea level.^[1]

Population

The population estimate for the angonoka tortoise in the wild is about 600 individuals, ranging from 440 to 770, but is still decreasing. The tortoise is at an extremely high risk of extinction; it is thought it will become extinct in the wild in the next 10 to 15 years. It can be found in five subpopulations, two east and three west of the Andranomavo River. The two to the east are Beheta and Sada; the three to the west are Ambatomainty, Andrafiafaly, and Betainalika.^[1]

Ecology and behaviour

The angonoka tortoise has been observed feeding on grasses found in open rocky areas of bamboo scrub. It is also known to eat shrubs, forbs, and herbs. While it has been seen eating dead bamboo leaves, it has never been observed eating living bamboo. As well as these plants, the tortoise has also been seen eating the dried feces of bushpigs and carnivores.^[1]
The introduced bushpig is the main predator of the angonoka tortoise; it eats the tortoises' eggs and young.^[14]
It is expected to become sexually mature once reaching 15 years old. The tortoise can produce one to six eggs per clutch and up to four clutches every season. The reproductive season is from January 15 to May 30.^[1] The angonoka tortoise's reproductive patterns coincide with the seasonal rainfall patterns of the region, with both mating and hatching occurring at the onset of the rainy seasons.^[15] With a 71.9% fertility rate and a 54.6% hatching success rate, about 4.3 hatchlings are produced per female tortoise.^[1]
In captivity, males must be separated due to aggression towards each other, including ramming, pushing, and overturning with the enlarged gular scute. The aggression is used to establish dominance.^[10]

Conservation

This species is one of the rarest land tortoises in the world, classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.^[1] The principal threats to the species are believed to be fires started to clear land for cattle grazing, and collection for the pet trade. The tortoise has a restricted distribution, likely a result of past collection for food, the expansion of agriculture, and accompanying fires.^[1] An additional threat is predation by the bushpig.^[14] Fires made to clear land can get out of control, turning into wildfires, which cut back more of the angonoka tortoise's habitat. Following efforts to create firebreaks through controlled fires in savanna fringes by conservation groups, out-of-control fires have decreased, until less than 50 ha (120 acres) of its habitat were burnt in 2004.^[1]
The angonoka tortoise is often captured to be sold in the international pet trade. Though some enforcement of restrictions on illegal trade is successful, including the confiscation of the illegally obtained tortoises, they remain in incredibly high demand for the global pet trade. This is a major threat to the tortoises remaining in the wild.^[1] Conservationists mark the shells with identifying marks which mars the most attractive feature and make them less desirable to poachers and wealthy collectors. The engraving is a last-ditch effort to protect the animals.^[16][17]
In addition to its Red List listing, the angonoka tortoise is now protected under the national law of Madagascar and listed on CITES Appendix I, commercial trade in wild-caught specimens is illegal (permitted only in exceptional licensed circumstances). For the conservation of the angonoka tortoise, the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust created Project Angonoka in 1986. The Water and Forests Department, the Durrell Trust, and the World Wide Fund for Nature work together on this project.^[1] A captive-breeding facility was established for this species in Madagascar in 1986 by the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (now the Durrell Trust) in collaboration with the Water and Forests Department.^[12] In May 1996, 75 tortoises were stolen from the facility. The thieves were never found, but 33 tortoises later appeared for sale in the Netherlands.^[18] The project ultimately was a success, achieving 224 captive-bred juveniles out of 17 adults in December 2004. After the 1990s, Project Angonoka started ecological research on the tortoise and the development of conservation plans that involved the communities surrounding the habitat. The work with the community involved local people in making firebreaks, along with the creation of a park proposed by the community to protect the tortoise and the forests. Monitoring of the angonoka tortoise in the global pet trade has continued to be advocated.^[1]
In March 2013, smugglers were arrested after carrying a single bag containing 54 angonoka tortoises and 21 radiated tortoises (Astrochelys radiata) through Suvarnabhumi International Airport in Thailand. The 54 angonoka tortoises might be as much as a tenth of the world's population of the species.^[19]
On 20 March 2016, the Custom officials at Mumbai airport seized 146 tortoises from a mishandled baggage of a Nepal citizen. This bag was said to belong to a transit passenger, who arrived from Madagascar and flew to Kathmandu leaving this bag behind. Out of the 146 tortoises, 139 were radiated tortoises (Astrochelys radiata) and seven were angonoka tortoises (Astrochelys yniphora), both critically endangered tortoise species of Madagascar. Two radiated tortoises were found dead with broken shell.^[20]
On 12 June 2016, it was reported that 6 angonoka tortoises and 72 radiated tortoises had gone missing from a breeding facility in Thailand.^[21]

References

THE BLUE-HEADED VIREO

 

 The blue-headed vireo (Vireo solitarius) is a Neotropical migrating song bird found in North and Central America. There are currently two recognized sub-species that belong to the blue-headed vireo. It has a range that extends across Canada and the eastern coast of the United-States, Mexico and some of Central America. It prefers large temperate forests with a mix of evergreen trees and deciduous under growth.
As the name suggests, the blue-headed vireo is characterized by its blue-grey head and bold yellow wing bars. Both sexes are very similar in plumage and size. Juveniles also have a similar plumage.
Populations of the blue-headed vireo have been steadily increasing since the 1970s and were therefore classified as a "Least Concern" species in 2004.^[2]

Description

 

The blue-headed vireo has similar plumage year round and does not drastically change its appearance during the breeding season. It can be characterized by its olive green upper body, two bold yellow wing bars down the edge of its wing, and a deep blue-grey crown from which it gets its name. The juvenile plumage of immature blue-headed vireos is not distinct but very similar to the adult plumage.^[3] While this bird's appearance is similar to the closely related Cassin's vireo (Vireo cassinii), the Cassin's vireo can be differentiated by its lighter yellow patches, a smaller, thinner bill, and a brownish-grey crown.^[4] There is little to no sexual dimorphism between males and females as both are similar in plumage colouration and size.^[5]
Like most Vireos, the blue-headed vireo is a relatively small bird with a length of 126–148 mm (5.0–5.8 in). The wingspan is usually found to be around 200–240 mm (7.9–9.4 in) and their weight is typically 13–19 g (0.46–0.67 oz). There are some subtle differences between the V.s. solitarius and V.s. alticola sub-species. V.s. alticola, the larger of the two sub-species, has a darker back with a larger wing length of 76–83.5 mm (2.99–3.29 in) and a bill length of 11–12 mm (0.43–0.47 in). Conversely, V.s. solitarius is slightly smaller with a wing length of 69.2–77.8 mm (2.72–3.06 in), and a bill length of 8.9–11 mm (0.35–0.43 in).^[3]
The average lifespan of the blue-headed vireo in the wild has been measured to be approximately 7 years and 5 months.^[3]

Blue-headed vireo

Taxonomy

 

The blue-headed vireo is placed in the genus Vireo, a group of small migrating passerine birds that are characterized by their usually dull greenish colouring, and a simple, monotonous song. Members of this group are usually characterized by the presence or absence of eye-rings, eye-strips, and wing bars. There is no sexual dimorphism between sexes in this group.^[5]
Though it had been previously classified as a separate species, the blue-headed vireo along with the plumbeous vireo (Vireo plumbeus) and the Cassin's Vireo (V. cassinii) were lumped in the 1950s into a single species, based on morphological data. This group of vireos was collectively known as the "Solitary Vireo" (Vireo solitarius). This taxonomy prevailed until 1997 when new molecular data showed that there were in fact three distinct species. The taxonomy reverted to that prior to the 1950s, and the blue-headed vireo was once again its own species.^[6]
There are two recognized subspecies of blue-headed vireo:^[6]

• Vireo solitarius solitarius – (Wilson, A, 1810) – is the nominate species. It is slightly smaller and breeds across Canada to south Pennsylvania and New Jersey. It overwinters in north-central and southern Mexico.^[3]
• Vireo solitarius alticola – Brewster, 1886 – is slightly larger than the nominate species. It breeds mainly in the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia. It overwinters in the Gulf States after a short migration.^[3]

 

Habitat and Distribution

 

Native to North America, the blue-headed vireo enjoys a large breeding range that extends over an immense area of Canada and northern United States. The breeding range of V.s. solitarius extends from northeastern British Columbia across Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec and down to southern Pennsylvania and New Jersey. V.s. alticola has a distinct breeding range that includes western Maryland and south, mainly in the Appalachian Mountains, to northern Georgia. At the end of the breeding season, the blue-headed vireo migrates south to its overwintering area. V.s. solitarius has the longest migration of the two sub-species and inhabits an overwintering area that includes eastern and southern Mexico to northern Central America. V.s. alticola migrates across a shorter distance to an area that extends from southeastern Virginia to Texas.^[3]
Blue-headed vireos prefer to breed in cool temperate forests, which in the southern part of its breeding range are found at higher elevations. Evergreen forests with spruce, fir, hemlock, and pine mixed with deciduous growth such as alder shrubs, willow shrubs, poplar, birch or maple trees are the habitat of choice.^[7] During the winter, blue-headed vireos inhabit mixed woods of pines and hardwoods. They are also found in coastal and flood plain swamps and low shrubby thickets.^[3]
Year round, even during the breeding season, population density is somewhat low and spread out. Overwintering population densities are usually found to be lower than in the breeding season.^[8] The density of the population ultimately depends on the type of forest being inhabited.^[3]
During migration, blue-headed vireos are often found to flock with groups of different sparrow species but rarely with members of its own species.^[3]

 

Habitat loss

 

 

When blue-headed vireos arrive on their breeding grounds, typically in mid-April, many deciduous trees have yet to leaf out, leading them to nest in evergreen trees including hemlocks. Recently, however, many hemlocks have been killed by an invasive Asian insect, the Hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), leaving the vireos with fewer nesting options until the deciduous trees begin to leaf out.^[9]

 

Behaviour

 

Vocalizations

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Song of a male blue-headed vireo in Minnesota

The primary song of the blue-headed vireo is a simple, slow, monotonous tune that is often confused with the faster red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) song. The primary song is sung only by the males and usually only during the breeding season. The males become quite vocal during the breeding season, with the song frequency reaching its height prior to mating and then decreasing after copulation. Both sexes share a series of calls that are used in both defence of nests, interspecies competition, and communication between breeding pairs while foraging.^[3]
When foraging during the breeding season, mated pairs constantly communicate with each other using a series of high pitched chirping calls.^[3][10]

 

Diet

 

Blue-headed vireos are mainly insectivorous birds but are also known to eat fleshy berries and fruit. They are equipped with short, strong bills used for processing insect prey with a tough carapace such as beetles. Foraging usually occurs in the mid level of trees. A foraging blue-headed vireo will hop from branch to branch on the same or to an adjacent tree and will then fly towards its prey to capture it.^[3] Typical prey consist mostly of caterpillars, butterflies and moths but may also include tree bugs, stink bugs, beetles, bees, ants, flies, dragonflies, grasshoppers, crickets, spiders and, on some occasions, snails.^[3] Fruit feeding occurs primarily during migration and overwintering, especially when overwintering in more tropical regions where fruit is more abundant or if the insect populations are low. This large and varied diet is an example of an opportunistic feeding strategy, allowing the blue-headed vireo to be plastic in its ability to adapt to resource availability.^[11]

 

Reproduction

 

When arriving to the breeding ground in mid-April, male vireos will hold large, individual territories that can range from 1.5–6.6 hectares (3.7–16.3 acres). Females will choose a male to mate with depending on the male's ability to defend and control a large territory. While defending their territory from other males, the male vireos will sing a primary song to attract females.^[12] Undecided females can usually be seen flying along the edges of competing male territories; usually this will force the two males into direct conflict for the right to copulate with the female.^[10][12]
Once a female has approached a suitable mate, the male will perform a series of mating rituals. Typically, these rituals involve the male building a courtship nest for the female. The courtship nest is not a full nest but is most likely an attempt by the male to display his ability to gather resources.^[10][12] Once the pair is established, the courtship nest is abandoned. Mating does not occur for approximately 2 weeks after pair has been established. During this time, the male and the female will cooperatively build a breeding nest which is typically formed between forking mid-level branches of evergreen and deciduous trees and are composed of twigs and foliage. Breeding nests are not reused in following breeding seasons.^[3]
In one breeding season, a female will lay 3–5 eggs at a rate of 1 egg per day. Eggs are creamy white with brown or black spots and are 17–23.1 x 13.3–15.8 mm (0.055–0.075 in x 0.04–0.05 in). Eggs are incubated for approximately 14 days after being laid. Once hatched, infants are highly altricial, often having little to no downy feathers. Infants open their eyes during day 5 or 6 and will begin to fledge after 14 days for a total chick-rearing period of 28 days. Once the young are able to leave the nest, the parents will split the juveniles and separate. Juveniles are usually dependent on the parent to provide food for approximately 1 month after leaving the nest. If the nest is destroyed or a mating pair produces a failed brood, an attempt to re-nest may occur but this ultimately depends on when the brood fails. If the brood fails early on in the season, there is a higher chance that the pair will re-nest, if later, the pair will often separate and not attempt a second brood.^[3]
Blue-headed vireo's have an atypical breeding strategy when compared to other closely related species. Blue-headed vireo males will assist their mates with daytime incubation of eggs, nest construction, and feeding of the chicks.^[10] Also, unlike most bird species, female blue-headed vireos do not attempt any extra-pair copulations with other males. Likewise, males make no attempt to guard females from other males, making blue-headed vireos both socially and genetically monogamous birds.^[10]

 

Hormonal Effects on Parental Care

 

The increase in male blue-headed vireo parental care is thought to be attributed to the levels of testosterone and prolactin found in the plasma of these birds during the mating season. Testosterone, a steroid hormone that is secreted by the testes, has been found to increase aggressive behaviour in male birds during the breeding season^[13] and that these males display less parental care if their testosterone levels are maintained.^[14] Conversely, prolactin is a peptide hormone that is regulated by the hypothalamus that has been found at higher levels in birds that do the majority of incubation.^[15] It was found that in the early breeding season, male blue-headed vireos have a low testosterone level and will maintain this low level at all stages of the season.^[16] This low level does not affect the Vireo's ability to compete with other males for territory however, as a high testosterone level has been found to not be necessary for territory establishment.^[17] Prolactin levels of the males were found to be high very early on in the breeding season and are maintained for the duration of the season. This high level of prolactin along with a low testosterone level, explains why male blue-headed vireos are so involved in the construction of the nest, daytime incubation, and feeding of the nestlings.^[10][16]

 

Predation

 

Blue-headed vireos have a low nesting success rate, with about 10–30% of hatchlings surviving.^[3] Common predators of the blue-headed vireo eggs and chicks include blue jays, crows, and squirrels.
Often, when a nest is attacked by a blue jay, the male and female will execute coordinated attacks on the approaching predator. This usually involves one partner swooping towards the blue jay while calling the mate who will then execute a second attack.^[10] Blue-headed vireos have also been known to nest close to nesting raptorial birds that do not prey on them. It is thought that they use the raptors as protection from squirrels that are, in turn, hunted by these bird of prey.^[3]
The largest contributor to the low nesting success rate of the blue-headed vireo is most likely the parasitic brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater). These birds will often lay their large eggs overtop the existing brood, causing the parents to feed the cowbird which will ultimately starve the infant Vireos.^[3]


 

 

 

 

 Binomial name

 

 Vireo solitarius

(Wilson, 1810)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE MANDARIN DUCKS

The mandarin duck (Aix galericulata) is a perching duck species found in East Asia. It is medium-sized, at 41–49 cm (16–19 in) long with a 65–75 cm (26–30 in) wingspan. It is closely related to the North American wood duck, the only other member of the genus Aix. Aix is an Ancient Greek word which was used by Aristotle to refer to an unknown diving bird, and galericulata is the Latin for a wig, derived from galerum, a cap or bonnet.^[2]

 Male and female mandarin ducks at

Description

The adult male has a red bill, large white crescent above the eye and reddish face and "whiskers". The male's breast is purple with two vertical white bars, and the flanks ruddy, and he has two orange "sails" at the back (large feathers that stick up like boat sails). The female is similar to the female wood duck, with a white eye-ring and stripe running back from the eye, but is paler below, has a small white flank stripe, and a pale tip to its bill.^[3]
Both the males and females have crests, but the purple crest is more pronounced on the male.
Like many other species of ducks, the male undergoes a moult after the mating season into eclipse plumage. When in eclipse plumage, the male looks similar to the female, but can be told apart by its bright yellow-orange or red beak, lack of any crest, and a less-pronounced eye-stripe.
Mandarin ducklings are almost identical in appearance to wood ducklings, and very similar to mallard ducklings. The ducklings can be distinguished from mallard ducklings because the eye-stripe of mandarin ducklings (and wood ducklings) stops at the eye, while in mallard ducklings it reaches all the way to the bill.^{[citation needed]}

Mutations

Various mutations of the mandarin duck are found in captivity. The most common is the white mandarin duck. Although the origin of this mutation is unknown, the constant pairing of related birds and selective breeding is presumed to have led to recessive gene combinations leading to genetic conditions including leucism.

Distribution and habitat

The native range of the mandarin duck, and parts of its introduced range where it is established breeding
  Breeding     Native resident     Migrant     Winter visitor     Introduced resident

The species was once widespread in East Asia, but large-scale exports and the destruction of its forest habitat have reduced populations in eastern Russia and in China to below 1,000 pairs in each country; Japan, however, is thought to still hold some 5,000 pairs. The Asian populations are migratory, overwintering in lowland eastern China and southern Japan.^[4]
Specimens frequently escape from collections, and in the 20th century, a large, feral population was established in Great Britain; more recently, small numbers have bred in Ireland, concentrated in the parks of Dublin. Now, about 7,000 are in Britain, and other populations on the European continent, the largest in the region of Berlin.^[5] Isolated populations exist in the United States. The town of Black Mountain, North Carolina, has a limited population,^{[6][dead link]} and a free-flying feral population of several hundred mandarins exist in Sonoma County, California.^{[citation needed]} This population is the result of several ducks escaping from captivity, then reproducing in the wild.^[3] In 2018, a single bird was seen in New York City's Central Park.^[7]

A mandarin duck seen in Central Park.

The habitats it prefers in its breeding range are the dense, shrubby forested edges of rivers and lakes. It mostly occurs in low-lying areas, but it may breed in valleys at altitudes of up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft). In winter, it additionally occurs in marshes, flooded fields, and open rivers. While it prefers fresh water, it may also be seen wintering in coastal lagoons and estuaries. In its introduced European range, it lives in more open habitat than in its native range, around the edges lakes, water meadows, and cultivated areas with woods nearby.^[4]

Behaviour

Breeding

A mother with ducklings in Richmond Park, London, England

In the wild, mandarin ducks breed in densely wooded areas near shallow lakes, marshes or ponds. They nest in cavities in trees close to water and during the spring, the females lay their eggs in the tree's cavity after mating. A single clutch of nine to twelve eggs is laid in April or May. Although the male may defend the brooding female and his eggs during incubation, he himself does not incubate the eggs and leaves before they hatch. Shortly after the ducklings hatch, their mother flies to the ground and coaxes the ducklings to leap from the nest. After all of the ducklings are out of the tree, they will follow their mother to a nearby body of water.^[4]

Food and feeding

Male flying in Dublin, Ireland

Mandarins feed by dabbling or walking on land. They mainly eat plants and seeds, especially beech mast. The species will also add snails, insects and small fish to its diet.^[8] The diet of mandarin ducks changes seasonally; in the fall and winter, they mostly eat acorns and grains. In the spring, they mostly eat insects, snails, fish and aquatic plants. In the summer, they eat dew worms, small fish, frogs, mollusks, and small snakes.^[9] They feed mainly near dawn or dusk, perching in trees or on the ground during the day.^[4]

Threats

Predation of the mandarin duck varies between different parts of its range. Mink, raccoon dogs, otters, polecats, Eurasian eagle owls, and grass snakes are all predators of the mandarin duck.^[9] The greatest threat to the mandarin duck is habitat loss due to loggers. Hunters are also a threat to the mandarin duck, because often they are unable to recognize the mandarin in flight and as a result, many are shot by accident. Mandarin ducks are not hunted for food, but are still poached because their extreme beauty is prized.^[9]

In culture

Chinese culture

A Yuan Dynasty porcelain teapot representing a mandarin duck pair

Porcelain winepot in the form of a mandarin duck, decorated in overglaze enamels, Qing dynasty, circa 1760

The Chinese refer to Mandarin ducks as yuanyang (simplified Chinese: 鸳鸯; traditional Chinese: 鴛鴦; pinyin: yuānyāng), where yuan (鴛) and yang (鴦) respectively stand for male and female mandarin ducks. In traditional Chinese culture, mandarin ducks are believed to be lifelong couples, unlike other species of ducks. Hence they are regarded as a symbol of conjugal affection and fidelity, and are frequently featured in Chinese art.
A Chinese proverb for loving couples uses the mandarin duck as a metaphor: "Two mandarin ducks playing in water" (simplified Chinese: 鸳鸯戏水; traditional Chinese: 鴛鴦戲水; pinyin: yuānyāng xì shuǐ). A mandarin duck symbol is also used in Chinese weddings because in traditional Chinese lore, they symbolize wedded bliss and fidelity. Because the male and female plumages of the mandarin duck are so unalike, yuan-yang is frequently used colloquially in Cantonese to mean an "odd couple" or "unlikely pair" – a mixture of two different types of same category. For example, the drink yuanyang and yuan-yang fried rice. Mandarin ducks featured on the flag of Weihaiwei during British rule.

Korean culture

See also: Wedding ducks

For Koreans, mandarin ducks represent peace, fidelity, and plentiful offspring. Similar to the Chinese, they believe that these ducks mate for life. For these reasons, pairs of mandarin ducks called wedding ducks are often given as wedding gifts and play a significant role in Korean marriage.^[10]

Japanese culture

Similarly, in Japanese the ducks are called oshidori (おしどり/オシドリ/鴛鴦) and are used in the phrase oshidori fūfu (おしどり夫婦, "a couple of lovebirds/happily married couple").

Gallery

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  Portrait of a male at Martin Mere, UK
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  Mandarin drake
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  Drake in eclipse plumage
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  Duckling
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  Mating couple
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  Egg, Museum Wiesbaden collection
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  Photo taken in inside Lazienki, Royal Residence Park (Warsaw, Poland)
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  Male and female mandarin ducks on branch
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  Mandarin duck (male) and mallard (female), photo taken in Stara Iwiczna, Poland
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  A pair of incense boxes shaped like mandarin ducks
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
   
  
   The native range of the mandarin duck, and parts of its introduced range where it is established breeding
    Breeding     Native resident     Migrant     Winter visitor     Introduced resident