THE CARACAL CAT

The caracal (Caracal caracal) /ˈkærəkæl/ is a medium-sized wild cat that is around one metre (3.3 ft) long. The caracal is sometimes called the desert lynx, African lynx or Persian lynx,^[2] but it is not a member of the Lynx genus. The caracal is native to Africa, Central Asia, Southwest Asia and India. The cat's name comes from the Turkish word "karakulak", which means "black ear".^[3]

Appearance

A caracal hunting

The most distinctive feature of the caracal is the long black tufts on the back of the ears roughly 4.4 centimetres (1.75 in) long. The caracal is often referred to as the desert lynx, although these black tufts are the only characteristic shared with the lynx. Its fur can range from tawny-brown to brick red. Caracals have white fur on the abdomen, chin and throat. Black lines run from the eye to the nose. Its fur coat is short and very dense. The ears are lightly colored in the front and are black in the back.^[4]
The caracal is the largest of Africa's "small cats."^[4] Males can weigh up to 18 kilograms (40 lb), and females up to 16 kilograms (35 lb). Caracals are about 40 centimetres (16 in) to 50 centimetres (20 in) tall at the shoulder. Caracals have a short tail. The male and female look the same. Its eye pupils shrink to circles, while other cats' pupils shrink to slits.^[4]

Evolution and taxonomy

The caracal is most closely related to the African golden cat (Caracal aurata),^[5] and likely diverged from the serval lineage within the last 5 million years, around the split between the Pliocene and Pleistocene eras.^[6] In the past, the caracal was classified with either the Lynx^[2] or Felis genera. However, recent molecular evidence now supports a monophyletic genus.^[1]

Behavior

Caracals are nocturnal hunters. They are normally solitary animals, but some live in pairs. Social interactions usually occur only during mating. Caracals can purr, hiss, snarl, bark and growl. The caracal breeds throughout the year. Females have from one to six kittens per litter. The kittens become independent after about nine or ten months. The young then travel considerable distances to find and claim their own new territory. Females normally have one litter per year. In captivity, a caracal can live up to 16 years; in the wild, they live for 10 to 12 years. Females stay in one place to defend the territory, while males roam over larger areas. Both genders leave scent marks. The caracal's speed and agility makes them very good hunters; they are able to take down prey two to three times their size.^[1] Their powerful hind legs allow them to leap more than three metres (9.8 ft) into the air to catch birds on the wing.^[7] Caracals are primarily nocturnal, and occasionally arboreal although they usually stay on the ground.^[6]

Distribution and habitat

 




The caracal inhabits woodlands, savannas, semi-deserts, and scrub forests, and prefers arid habitats with lower rainfall and some coverage.^[1] Although it hunts on the ground, it can climb trees and swim swiftly to catch fish. They are not found in tropical rainforests.^[1] However, they will inhabit evergreen and montane forests.^[4]
The caracal is widely distributed across Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia into India. This small cat is distributed across all of Africa except for the equatorial forest belt and the central Sahara. The historical range of the caracal is similar to that of the cheetah; both overlap with the range of several small desert gazelles. However, the caracal remains today in a wider range. The caracal has remained in most of its historical range, although has lost a part of its range at the edges, especially in North and West Africa.^[1]
Female home ranges are smaller than male home ranges. In general, caracal home ranges are larger in arid environments compared to areas with more water.^[1]

Reproduction

The caracal's gestation period is approximately two and a half months, and litters are usually between one and four kittens.^[8] The kittens are weaned by 10 weeks, but remain with the mother for up to a year. Caracals reach sexual maturity between 12 and 16 months.^[4]

 

 Diet

Like most carnivorous cats, the caracal has a very broad diet. It mainly consumes small mammals and birds. It also preys upon the young of larger mammals, such as the impala and antelope. Caracals sometimes eat lizards, snakes and insects.^[1] The caracal preys on a variety of mammals, but most typically rodents, hares, hyraxes, and small antelope. Although caracals are considered a small cat, they do not hesitate to kill larger prey, such as an adult springbok or juvenile kudu, when the opportunity arises.^[4] Hunting usually occurs at night and the caracal kills by biting the neck and suffocating its prey.^[8] The caracal has also been known to scavenge when necessary.^[1]

Conservation

A caracal kitten

The caracal is often considered a nuisance to local crop and livestock owners because it does not shy away from livestock predation, and is frequently killed because of this. The caracal is also hunted for its skin and meat, which some bush tribes consider a delicacy.^[4] Habitat destruction, from agriculture and desertification, is also a threat in central, west, north, and northeast Africa.^[1] The caracal is most abundant in Namibia and South Africa, although research indicates they are declining through parts of Namibia.^[9] Caracals are considered rare throughout most of their range .^[8] In Africa, the caracal is listed under CITES Appendix II and Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.^[1][4] Hunting caracals is forbidden in sub-Saharan Africa, but only in about half of the caracal's range, as it is not protected in Namibia and South Africa. Here, the caracal is considered a problem animal, and is so abundant that landowners are permitted to kill without restriction.^[1] Like many cats, the caracal is not often seen. However, the caracal seems to be doing well even in nations where hunting it is permitted. Humans are the primary threat to caracals,^[1] but leopards are known to kill them.^[10] Overall, caracal conservation is not currently an issue, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, although its population as well as its habitat has decreased in specific areas.^[1] In the future, the conservation status of the caracal may worsen as a result of continued habitat destruction, fragmentation and desertification.^[4]

Captive breeding

Some zoos raise caracals in captive breeding programs. The ethics and safety of having a caracal as a pet are debated. Although they are easy to tame, caracals are very active and territorial.^[11]

History

Caracals were historically trained to hunt birds in Iran and India. Sometimes, a caracal was put into a stadium along with a flock of pigeons. People would make bets on how many pigeons the caracal would kill during a set time span. A well-trained caracal could take down up to twelve pigeons in one leap with its large paws and strong legs.^[12] This is where the expression "to put a cat amongst the pigeons" came from.^[4]

Cultural depictions

Caracals appear to have been religiously significant to the ancient Egyptians. Caracals were found in wall paintings, and sculptures of caracals and other cats guarded tombs. Some caracal bodies were embalmed.^[13]
Like cheetahs, caracals were used as a hunting tool. Caracals were trained to hunt small game and birds for Indian royalty.^[1] Today, many people consider the caracal an "exotic" pet, although they do not behave domestically in captivity. Despite its wild attitude, attempts have been made to crossbreed caracals with domestic cats to produce a "domestic" caracal.^[4]

THE BLACK PANTHER

This article is about the animal. For other uses, see Black panther (disambiguation). For people associated with the American political party, see Black Panther Party.

A melanistic jaguar at the Henry Doorly Zoo. Melanism is the result of a dominant allele and remains relatively rare in jaguars.

A black panther is the melanistic color variant of any Panthera species. Black panthers in Asia and Africa are leopards (Panthera pardus) and black panthers in the Americas are black jaguars (Panthera onca).^[1]

 

  Melanism

Melanism in the jaguar (Panthera onca) is conferred by a dominant allele, and in the leopard (Panthera pardus) by a recessive allele. Close examination of the color of these black cats will show that the typical markings are still present, but are hidden by the excess black pigment melanin, giving an effect similar to that of printed silk. This is called "ghost striping". Melanistic and non-melanistic animals can be littermates. It is thought that melanism may confer a selective advantage under certain conditions since it is more common in regions of dense forest, where light levels are lower. Recently, preliminary studies also suggest that melanism might be linked to beneficial mutations in the immune system.^[2]

Leopard

A melanistic leopard

The Javan leopard was initially described as being black with dark black spots and silver-grey eyes.^[3]
Black leopards are common in the equatorial rainforest of Malaya and the tropical rainforest on the slopes of some African mountains such as Mount Kenya.^[4] They are also common in Java, and are reported from densely forested areas in southwestern China, Myanmar, Assam and Nepal, from Travancore and other parts of southern India where they may be more numerous than spotted panthers.^[5] One was recorded in the equatorial forest of Cameroon.

In captivity

Melanistic leopards are the most common form of black panther in captivity and they have been selectively bred for decades in the zoo and exotic pet trades. According to Funk and Wagnalls' Wildlife Encyclopedia, captive black leopards are less fertile than normal leopards, with average litter sizes of 1.8 and 2.1, respectively. This is likely due to inbreeding depression.^[6]

Note the markings on this female black leopard.

In the early 1980s, Glasgow Zoo acquired a 10-year-old black leopard, nicknamed the Cobweb Panther, from Dublin Zoo. She was exhibited for several years before being moved to the Madrid Zoo. This leopard had a uniformly black coat profusely sprinkled with white hairs as though draped with spider webs. The condition appeared to be vitiligo; as she aged, the white became more extensive.^{[citation needed]} Since then, other "cobweb panthers" have been reported and photographed in zoos.

Jaguar

A melanistic jaguar

In jaguars, the melanism allele is dominant. Consequently, black jaguars may produce either black or spotted cubs, but a pair of spotted jaguars can only produce spotted cubs. Individuals with two copies of the allele are darker (the black background colour is more dense) than ones with just one copy, whose background colour may appear to be dark charcoal rather than black.
The black jaguar was considered a separate species by indigenous peoples. W H Hudson wrote,

"The jaguar is a beautiful creature, the ground-colour of the fur a rich golden-red tan, abundantly marked with black rings, enclosing one or two small spots within. This is the typical colouring and it varies little in the temperate regions; in the hot region the Indians recognise three strongly marked varieties, which they regard as distinct species – the one described; the smaller jaguar, less aquatic in his habits and marked with spots, not rings; and, thirdly, the black variety. They scout the notion that their terrible "black tiger" is a mere melanic variation, like the black leopard of the Old World and the wild black rabbit. They regard it as wholly distinct, and affirm that it is larger and much more dangerous than the spotted jaguar; that they recognise it by its cry; that it belongs to the terra firma rather than to the water-side; finally, that black pairs with black, and that the cubs are invariably black. Nevertheless, naturalists have been obliged to make it specifically one with Felis onca [Panthera onca], the familiar spotted jaguar, since, when stripped of its hide, it is found to be anatomically as much like that beast as the black is like the spotted leopard."^[7]

A black jaguar named "Diablo" was inadvertently crossed with a lioness named "Lola" at the Bear Creek Wildlife Sanctuary in Barrie, Ontario, Canada.^[8] The offspring were a charcoal black jaglion female and a tan-coloured, spotted jaglion male. It therefore appears that the jaguar melanism gene is also dominant over normal lion colouration (the black jaguar sire was presumably carrying the black on only one allele). In preserved, stuffed specimens, black leopards often fade to a rusty colour but black jaguars fade to a chocolate brown colour.^{[citation needed]}

 

 Cougar

There are no authenticated cases of truly melanistic cougars (pumas). Melanistic cougars have never been photographed or shot in the wild and none has ever been bred. Unconfirmed sightings, known as the "North American black panther", are currently attributed to errors in species identification by non-experts, and by the memetic exaggeration of size. Black panthers in the American Southeast feature prominently in Choctaw folklore where, along with the owl, they are often thought to symbolize Death.
In his Histoire Naturelle (1749), Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, wrote of the "Black Cougar":^[9]

"M. de la Borde, King’s physician at Cayenne, informs me, that in the [South American] Continent there are three species of rapacious animals; that the first is the jaguar, which is called the tiger; that the second is the couguar [sic], called the red tiger, on account of the uniform redness of his hair; that the jaguar is of the size of a large bull-dog, and weighs about 200 pounds [90 kg]; that the cougar is smaller, less dangerous, and not so frequent in the neighbourhood of Cayenne as the jaguar; and that both these animals take six years in acquiring their full growth. He adds, that there is a third species in these countries, called the black tiger, of which we have given a figure under the appellation of the black cougar. The head is pretty similar to that of the common cougar; but the animal has long black hair, and likewise a long tail, with strong whiskers. He weighs not much above forty pounds [18 kg]. The female brings forth her young in the hollows of old trees."

This "black cougar" was most likely a margay or ocelot, which are under 40 pounds (18 kg) in weight, live in trees, and do have melanistic phases.
Another description of a black cougar^[10] was provided by Thomas Pennant:

"Black tiger, or cat, with the head black, sides, fore part of the legs, and the tail, covered with short and very glossy hairs, of a dusky colour, sometimes spotted with black, but generally plain: Upper lips white: At the corner of the mouth a black spot: Long hairs above each eye, and long whiskers on the upper lip: Lower lip, throat, belly and the inside of the legs, whitish, or very pale ash-colour: Paws white: Ears pointed: Grows to the size of a heifer of a year old: Has vast strength in its limbs.-- Inhabits Brasil and Guiana: Is a cruel and fierce beast; much dreaded by the Indians; but happily is a scarce species."

According to his translator Smellie (1781), the description was taken from two black jaguars exhibited in London some years previously.

Reports of black panthers

Reports of black panthers in Australia

Black panther sightings are frequently recorded in rural Victoria and New South Wales^[11] and Western Australia. The Australian "phantom panthers" are said to be responsible for the disappearances and deaths of numerous cats, dogs and livestock.
Animal X Natural Mysteries Unit led an investigation into the phantom panther. Mike Williams, a local researcher, said he had sent feces and hair found by locals to labs for analysis, which identified it as feces from dogs that had feasted on swamp wallaby, and hair from a domestic cat. Mr Williams said he also had known leopard feces and hair collected from a private zoo tested by one of the same labs, but that these samples came back with the same results of dog feces and domestic cat hair. This indicated the lab incapable of distinguishing between leopard hairs and those of domestic animals, casting doubt on the previous findings. The lab used was not identified in the episode.^[12]

Pseudo-melanism

Pseudo-melanism (abundism) occurs in leopards. A pseudo-melanistic leopard has a normal background color, but the spots are more densely packed than normal and merge to obscure the golden-brown background color. Any spots on the flanks and limbs that have not merged into the mass of swirls and stripes are unusually small and discrete, rather than forming rosettes. The face and underparts are paler and dappled like those of ordinary spotted leopards.^[13]

Male Persian leopard with an atypical coat pattern (Wilhelma, Germany)

Richard Lydekker described specimens of pseudo-melanistic leopards found in South Africa in the late nineteenth century:^[14]

"The ground-color of this animal was a rich tawny, with an orange tinge; but the spots, instead of being of the usual rosette-like form, were nearly all small and solid, like those on the head of an ordinary leopard; while from the top of the head to near the root of the tail the spots became almost confluent, producing the appearance of a broad streak of black running down the back. A second skin had the black area embracing nearly the whole of the back and flanks, without showing any trace of the spots. These dark-coloured South African leopards differ from the black leopards of the northern and eastern parts of Africa and Asia in that while in the latter the rosette-like spots are always retained and clearly visible, in the former the rosettes are lost..."

—Lydekker, R. (1910), Harmsworth Natural History

Most other color morphs of leopards are known only from paintings or museum specimens. In May 1936, the British Natural History Museum exhibited the mounted skin of an unusual Somali leopard.^[14] The pelt was richly decorated with an intricate pattern of swirling stripes, blotches, curls and fine-line traceries. This is different from a spotted leopard, but similar to a king cheetah, hence the modern cryptozoology term king leopard. Between 1885 and 1934, six pseudo-melanistic leopards were recorded in the Albany and Grahamstown districts of South Africa.^[14] This indicated a mutation in the local leopard population. Other king leopards have been recorded from Malabar in southwestern India.^[14] Shooting for trophies may have contributed to the loss of these populations.

Culture and literature

 

 

THE PLANS ZEBRA

The plains zebra (Equus quagga, formerly Equus burchellii), also known as the common zebra or Burchell's zebra, is the most common and geographically widespread species of zebra.^[2] It ranges from the south of Ethiopia through East Africa to as far south as Botswana and eastern South Africa. The plains zebra remains common in game reserves, but is threatened by human activities such as hunting for its meat and hide, as well as competition with livestock and encroachment by farming on much of its habitat.
Subspecies include the extinct quagga and six recognized extant subspecies, though there is great variation in coat patterns between individuals. The striping pattern is unique among ungulates in the region, and its functions are disputed. Suggested functions include crypsis, forms of motion camouflage, social signaling and recognition, and discouraging biting flies.
The plains zebra's range is fragmented, but spans much of southern and eastern Africa south of the Sahara. Its habitat is generally but not exclusively treeless grasslands and savanna woodlands, both tropical and temperate. They generally avoid desert, dense rainforest and permanent wetlands, and rarely stray more than 30 kilometers from a water source.
The plains zebra is a highly social species, forming harems with a single stallion, several mares and their recent offspring; there are also bachelor groups. Groups may come together to form herds. The animals keep watch for predators rather than attempting to hide; they bark or snort when they see a predator, and the harem stallion attacks predators such as dogs, hyenas and leopards to defend his harem. The species population is stable and not endangered, though some populations such as in Tanzania have declined sharply.

 

 

Taxonomy

There is a dispute among biologists as to how to properly classify the various species of zebra. It is thought that the plains zebra and mountain zebra belong to the subgenus Hippotigris and that Grévy's zebra is the sole species of subgenus Dolichohippus. This is on account of Grévy's zebra resembling an ass (subgenus Asinus), while the plains zebra and mountain zebra are more horse-like. All three animals belong to the genus Equus along with other living equids. However, recent phylogenetic evidence suggests that the mountain zebras and Grévy's zebras should be classified with asses and donkeys in a lineage separate from the plains zebra.^[3] In areas where plains zebras are sympatric with Grévy's zebras, it is not unusual to find them in the same herds^[4] and fertile hybrids occur.^[5] In captivity, plains zebras have been crossed with mountain zebras. The hybrid foals lacked a dewlap and resembled the plains zebra apart from their larger ears and their hindquarters pattern.

Subspecies

Quagga (E. q. quagga)

Burchell's zebra (E. q. burchellii) in Etosha National Park, Namibia

Maneless zebras (E. q. borensis) are the northernmost and generally the darkest form of the plains zebra

In 2004, C. P. Groves and C. H. Bell investigated the taxonomy of the zebra genus, Equus, subgenus Hippotigris. They published their research in the journal Mammalian Biology. They revised the subspecies of the plains zebra Equus quagga. Six subspecies are now recognizable.^[1]

• Quagga, †Equus quagga quagga – Boddaert, 1785
• Burchell's zebra, Equus quagga burchellii – Gray, 1824
• Grant's zebra, Equus quagga boehmi – Matschie, 1892
• Maneless zebra Equus quagga borensis – Lönnberg, 1921
• Chapman's zebra, Equus quagga chapmani – Layard, 1865
• Crawshay's zebra, Equus quagga crawshayi – De Winton, 1896

Sometimes another subspecies is distinguished in Eastern Zimbabwe and Western Mozambique:

• Selous' zebra, Equus quagga selousi - Pocock 1897

The quagga was originally classified as a separate species, Equus quagga, in 1778. Over the next 50 years or so, many other zebras were described by naturalists and explorers. Because of the great variation in coat patterns (no two zebras are alike), taxonomists were left with a great number of described "species", and no easy way to tell which of these were true species, which were subspecies, and which were simply natural variants. The quagga was the first extinct creature to have its DNA studied. Recent genetic research at the Smithsonian Institution has demonstrated that the quagga was in fact not a separate species at all, but diverged from the plains zebra, between 120,000 and 290,000 years ago, and suggests that it should be named Equus burchellii quagga. However, according to the rules of biological nomenclature, where there are two or more alternative names for a single species, the name first used takes priority. As the quagga was described about 30 years earlier than the Burchell's zebra, it appears that the correct terms are E. quagga quagga for the quagga and E. quagga burchellii for the plains zebra, unless "Equus burchellii" is officially declared to be a nomen conservandum.
Burchell's zebra was thought to have been hunted to extinction. However, Groves and Bell concluded in their 2004 publication that "the extinct true Burchell's zebra" is a phantom. Careful study of the original zebra populations in Zululand and Swaziland, and of skins harvested on game farms in Zululand and Natal, has revealed that a certain small proportion shows similarity to what now is regarded as typical "burchellii". The type localities of the subspecies Equus quagga burchellii and Equus quagga antiquorum (the Damara zebra) are so close to each other that the two are in fact one, and that therefore the older of the two names should take precedence over the younger. They therefore say that the correct name for the southernmost subspecies must be burchellii not antiquorum. The subspecies Equus quagga burchellii still exists in KwaZulu-Natal and in Etosha.

Physical description

Foal displaying brown and white pattern

The plains zebra is mid-sized, smaller on average than the other two zebra species, and thick bodied with relatively short legs. There is some variation in size, based on the animals' condition and subspecies. Adults of both sexes can stand from 1.1 to 1.45 m (3.6 to 4.8 ft) high at the withers (shoulder), are 2.17 to 2.46 m (7.1 to 8.1 ft) long, not counting a 47 to 56 cm (19 to 22 in) tail, and weigh 175 to 385 kg (386 to 849 lb). Males may weigh 10% more than females.^[6][7]
Like all zebras, they are boldly striped in black and white, and no two individuals look exactly alike. They also have black or dark muzzles. The natal coat of a foal is brown and white. All have vertical stripes on the forepart of the body, which tend towards the horizontal on the hindquarters. The northern populations have narrower and more defined striping;^[8][9] southern populations have varied but lesser amounts of striping on the underparts, the legs and the hindquarters.^[8] Southern populations also have brown "shadow" stripes between the black and white coloring.^[8][9] These are absent or poorly expressed in northern zebras.^[8][9]
Embryological evidence has shown that the zebra's background color is dark and the white is an addition.^[10] The first subspecies to be described, the now-extinct quagga, had plain brown hindquarters. There have been various mutations of the zebra's pelage, from mostly white to mostly black.^[11] Rare albino zebras have been recorded in the forests of Mount Kenya.^[12]

Function of the stripes

Variation in coat pattern in Burchell's zebra (E. q. burchellii)

The striping pattern of the zebra is unique among sympatric ungulates. One suggested function for the stripes is to provide crypsis for the animal in tall grass or in the dappled shade beneath bushes and trees.^[13] However, cryptically colored species, such as the kudu and bushbuck, tend to be quiet and stealthy. They freeze when there is danger and flee only at the last moment. By contrast, the zebra is active and noisy,^[13] and makes no attempt to hide itself.^[10] Another suggestion is motion camouflage, that the stripes affect a predator's judgement of the zebra's size, distance and what direction it is going in.^[13] A 2014 study supports this hypothesis, finding that, when moving, the stripes may confuse observers, such as mammalian predators and biting insects, via two visual illusions, the wagon wheel effect, where the perceived motion is inverted, and the barber pole illusion, where the perceived motion is in a wrong direction.^[14] A related hypothesis is that the stripes make it difficult for a predator to single out and learn about an individual during a chase.^[13]
Perhaps the best explanation for the stripes is that they serve a social function.^[10] Individual zebras can apparently recognize each other by their striping patterns.^[15] The stripes may also serve as visual cues for grooming.^[10] In addition, they could serve to help zebra groups stay together when they are fleeing.^[13] A 2012 study suggests that stripes may have developed to discourage biting flies. Experiments have demonstrated that the stripes polarize light in such a way that it discourages tabanids (biting flies) in a manner not shown with other coat patterns.^[16] Another study from 2015 determined that environment temperature is a strong predictor for zebra striping patterns and proposed that the stripes may be related to thermoregulation.^[17]

Ecology

Range and habitat

Plains zebra are highly dependent on water

The plains zebra's range stops short of the Sahara from South Sudan and southern Ethiopia extending south along eastern Africa, as far as Zambia, Mozambique, and Malawi, before spreading into most southern African countries. They are regionally extinct in Burundi and Lesotho, and they may have lived in Algeria in the Neolithic Era.^[18]
Plains zebras generally live in treeless grasslands and savanna woodlands^[9] but can be found in a variety of habitats, both tropical and temperate. However they are generally absent from deserts, dense rainforests and permanent wetlands.^[9] Zebras also live in elevations from sea level to 4,300 m on Mount Kenya. They rely on rainfall for food and water, and go on great migrations to follow the rains. The zebras will migrate up to 700 miles (1,100 km) for food. Other grazers also migrate. Plains zebras are highly water-dependent^[4] and are usually found within 25–30 kilometers of a water source.

Diet and predation

Zebras grazing with wildebeests in the Ngorongoro Crater

In one study, the zebra's diet was estimated to be 92% grass, 5% herbs, and 3% shrubs.^[19] Unlike many of the large ungulates of Africa, the plains zebra does not require (but still prefers) short grass to graze. It eats a wide range of different grasses, preferring young, fresh growth where available, and also browses on leaves and shoots from time to time. In consequence, it ranges more widely than many other species, even into woodlands, and it is often the first grazing species to appear in a well-vegetated area.^[4] Zebras have a simple stomach and use hindgut fermentation (caeco-colic), which allows them to digest and assimilate larger amounts of forage during a 24-hour period.^[20] Thus, zebras are less selective in foraging, but they do spend much time eating. The zebra is a pioneer grazer and prepares the way for more specialized grazers like blue wildebeests and Thomson's gazelles^[4] which depend on shorter and more nutritious grasses.
The plains zebra's major predators are lions and spotted hyenas.^[8] Nile crocodiles are also great threats during migratory river crossings. Wild dogs, cheetahs, and leopards also prey on zebras, although the threats they pose are generally minor and they mostly attack the foals. Olive Baboons may prey on foals, but pose no threat to adults. The zebra can be a formidable adversary, since they have a strong bite and a kick powerful enough to kill land predators. They often try to outrun larger predators such as lions and spotted hyenas, whereas they often stand their ground with the smaller predators.

Interactions with other grazers

Plains zebra herds will mix and migrate together along with other species such as wildebeests. Wildebeests and zebras generally coexist peacefully and will alert each other to predators. However, aggressive interactions occasionally occur.^[21][22]

Behavior

 

 

 

Social structure

A zebra harem in Etosha National Park

The plains zebra is highly social and usually forms small family groups called harems, which consist of a single stallion, several mares, and their recent offspring. The adult membership of a harem is highly stable, typically remaining together for months to years. Groups of all male "bachelors" also exist. These are stable groups of 2-15 males with an age-based hierarchy lead by a young male.^[4] These males stay in their groups until they are ready to start a harem. The bachelors prepare for their adult roles with play fights and greeting/challenge rituals, which take up most of their activities.^[4] Multiple harems and bachelor groups come together to form herds. Plains zebras are unusual among harem-holding species in forming these groups.^[23] In addition, pairs of harems may create temporarily stable subgroups within a herd, allowing individuals to interact with those outside their group.^[23] Among harem-holding species, this has only been observed in primates like the gelada and the hamadryas baboon.^[23]
Stallions form and expand their harems by abducting young mares from their natal harems.^[4][24] When a mare reaches sexual maturity, she will exhibit the estrous posture, which attracts nearby stallions,^[24] both bachelors and harem leaders. Her family stallion (likely her father) will chase off or fight stallions attempting to abduct her. Even after a young mare is isolated from her natal harem, the fight over her continues until her estrous cycle is over, and it starts again with the next estrous cycle.^[25] It is rare that the mare's original abductor keeps her for long.^[25] When the mare finally ovulates, the male that impregnates her keeps her for good. Thus, the mare becomes a permanent member of a new harem.^[25][26] The estrous posture of a female becomes less noticeable to outside males as she gets older, hence competition for older females is virtually non-existent.^[15]

Two zebras fighting

Mares exist in a hierarchy, with the alpha female being the first to mate with the stallion and being the one to lead the group. When new mares are added to the group, they are met with hostility by the other mares. Thus, the stallion must shield the new mares until the aggression subsides.^[4][26] The most recently added females rank lowest. Females that become unfit or weak may drop in their rank, though. The female membership of a harem stays intact even if a new stallion takes over.^[15] Zebras strengthen their social bonds with grooming. Members of a harem nip and scrape along the neck, shoulders, and back with their teeth and lips. Mothers and foals groom the most often, followed by siblings. Grooming shows social status and eases aggressive behavior.^[4]
A stallion will defend his group from other males. When challenged, the stallion issues a warning to the invader by rubbing nose or shoulder with him. If the warning is not heeded, a fight breaks out. Zebra fights often become very violent, with the animals biting at each other's necks, heads or legs, wrestling to the ground, and occasional kicking. Sometimes a stallion will lie still on the ground as if surrendering, but once the other male lets up, will strike and continue the fight.^[4] Most fighting occurs over young mares in estrus, and as long as a harem stallion is healthy, he will usually not be challenged. Only unhealthy stallions have their harems taken over, and even then the new stallion gradually takes over pushing the old one out without a fight.^[4]

Communication

 



At least six different calls have been documented for the plains zebra. One of which is its distinctive high-pitched contact call heard as "a-ha, a-ha, a-ha" or "kwa-ha, kaw-ha, ha, ha".^[15] When a predator is sighted, a zebra will make a two-syllable alarm call. A loud snort is made when moving in cover of potential danger. When in contentment, a zebra will make a more drawn-out snort. Males will make a short high-pitched squeal when hurt and foals will emit a drawn out wail when in distress.^[15] There are two main facial expressions made by zebras. One is for greeting and involves the ears sticking up and directed forward; the other is threatening and involves the ears down.^[15]

Reproduction

Mother zebra nursing her foal

The stallion mates with all his mares. Mares may give birth to one foal every twelve months. The birthing peak is during the rainy season. She nurses the foal for up to a year. The stallion is generally intolerant of foals that are not his. It is possible that zebras practice infanticide and feticide; such incidences have been observed in both captive individuals^[27] and in nature. In the film "Great Zebra Exodus," a mare was trying to protect her foal from a new stallion as its father was a fallen stallion.^[28] Like horses, zebras are able to stand, walk, run from danger, and suckle shortly after they are born. At the moment of birth, a mother zebra keeps any other zebra away from her foal, including the stallion, the other mares, and even the previous offspring. Later, though, they all bond. Within the group, a foal has the same rank as its mother.^[15] Plains zebra foals are protected by their mother as well as the head stallion and the other mares in their group. Even with parental protection, up to 50% of zebra foals are taken by predation, disease, and starvation each year.
Young male zebras eventually leave their family groups. This is not because of sexual maturity or being kicked out by their fathers, but because their relationship with their mothers have faded after the birth of a sibling.^[8][24] The young stallion then seeks out other young stallions for company.^[24] Young females may stay in the harem until they are abducted by another stallion.^[8]

Anti-predator behavior

 


For protection from land predators, the plains zebra retreats into open areas with good visibility at night. When the groups forage or sleep, one zebra will keep watch, and if a predator is spotted, it will bark or snort loudly.^[8] When being hunted by hyenas or wild dogs, a zebra harem stays close together and cooperates to protect threatened members,^[4] particularly the young. The harem stallion will go on the offensive and attack the dogs or hyenas.^[4] Though hyenas may harass the stallion, they usually only concentrate on the herd, and attempt to dodge the stallion's assaults. Unlike stallions, mares typically only react aggressively to hyenas or dogs when their foals are threatened. Unlike wildebeest, zebras rarely take to water when escaping hyenas.^[29] With lions, a zebra's best defense is to outpace them, as lions do not have as much endurance as hyenas or wild dogs. Cheetahs and leopards are mostly threats to foals, as an adult zebra is fully capable of driving them away.

Human interactions

 

 

Conservation

 Overall, the plains zebra population remains stable, and the species faces no major threat that would cause range-wide decline.^[1] The zebra can be found in numerous protected areas across its range, including the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, Tsavo and Masai Mara in Kenya, Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe, Etosha National Park in Namibia, and Kruger National Park in South Africa. There are some stable populations in unprotected areas.^[1]

Some local populations, though, have faced great declines and even extinctions. Though facing decline in numbers the plains zebra population is thriving at about 750,000. One subspecies, the quagga, is now extinct. In Tanzania, the zebra population has decreased by 20% from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s.^[1] Zebras are threatened by hunting for their hide and meat, and habitat change from farming. They also compete with livestock for food,^[30][31] and are sometimes culled. Poaching is largely a threat to northern populations, while southern populations are threatened mostly by habitat loss. Recent civil wars in Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Uganda have caused dramatic declines in all wildlife populations, including those of plains zebra. It is now extinct in Burundi. Civil war in Angola during much of the past 25 years has devastated its wildlife populations, including its once-abundant plains zebra, and destroyed the national parks administration and infrastructure.
Nevertheless, plains zebras are protected in most of their range. They are an important economic source in tourism.

In culture

The zebra is revered in some African cultures as a symbol of beauty. In the dances of the Karamojong tribe of Uganda, women would paint themselves in zebra stripes and act like them.^[8] The Dube tribe of South Africa features a zebra on its totem. Zebras also appear on the coat of arms of Botswana.

References