THE SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA

 

The short-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla chinchilla) is a small rodent part of the Chinchillidae family and is classified as an endangered species by the IUCN. Originating in South America, the chinchilla is part of the genus Chinchilla, which is separated into two species: the long-tailed chinchilla and the short-tailed chinchilla. Although the short-tailed chinchilla used to be found in Chile, Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia, the geographical distribution of the species has since shifted. Today, the species remains extant in the Andes mountains of northern Chile, but small populations have been found in southern Bolivia.

 The short-tailed chinchilla is characterized by its grayish-blue fur which is extremely dense and plush. The short-tailed chinchilla has a short furry tail, which distinguishes it from the long-tailed chinchilla. Compared to C. lanigera, C. chinchilla has smaller, more rounded ears^[4] and is slightly smaller in body size.

 Chinchillas have been exploited by humans for centuries. Commercial hunting of short-tailed chinchillas for fur began in 1828 in Chile, leading to an increased demand in Europe and the United States. As the demand for chinchilla pelts rose, the species number declined, leading to the species' apparent extinction in 1917. In 1929 a ban against hunting chinchillas was enacted, but not strictly enforced until 1983.^[5] Despite the species' rediscovery in the wild in 1953, the population of short-tailed chinchillas has continued to decline and has been categorized as endangered. Numerous threats to short-tailed chinchillas exist, including illegal hunting, habitat loss, firewood harvesting, and mining.^[4] In the last few decades, chinchillas have become increasingly popular as exotic pets, which has led to an increase in hunting and trapping. 

 Short-tailed chinchillas are generally smaller than long-tailed chinchillas and can be distinguished by comparing general body length, head size, tail length, and ear size. Upon closer observation, short-tailed chinchillas appear to have a larger body size, thicker necks, wider shoulders, and smaller ears than long-tailed chinchillas.^[6] Their tail length is what distinguishes them greatly, with short-tailed chinchillas having a tail measuring up to 100 mm, whereas long-tailed chinchillas have a tail measuring up to 130 mm.^[7] They have broad heads with vestigial cheek pouches.

The short-tailed chinchilla has a body size measuring between 23 and 38 cm long and weighing around 400 to 800 g. Before maturity, short-tailed chinchillas weigh anywhere between 113 and 170 g.^[8] Short-tailed chinchillas which have been bred to be pets are typically larger, measuring almost twice the size of those in the wild. In both wild and domestic short-tailed chinchillas, females are larger than males, but this difference in size is more apparent in domesticated chinchillas.^[4] Both sexes of short-tailed chinchillas are sexually dimorphic and appear the same, besides a size difference. 

 Short-tailed chinchillas are covered in a thick coat of extremely fine hair. The fur is very soft and plush due to the high number of hairs in a single follicle. 50 hairs can be held in a follicle, as compared to human hair which typically has one hair per follicle. Chinchilla fur is extremely valuable and is considered the softest in the world. Fur color can vary by individual, but colors range from violet, sapphire, blue-grey, beige, beige, brown, ebony, gray, white, cream, and pearl with each hair having a black tip. Typically, the underbelly of the species is a cream or off-white color shade.

 

 The tail is usually bushy and has coarser hair. The dense coat of chinchillas allows the species to survive in the cold temperatures of their habitat in the Andes mountains. Since their coat is extremely thick, water is prevented from evaporating, which allows chinchillas to maintain body warmth.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, the fur is so dense, that fleas and parasites cannot penetrate through the hair and will often die of suffocation. However, chinchillas cannot pant or sweat and with a dense fur coat, they are prone to overheating, especially in the care of humans. Their natural cooling mechanism is pumping blood through their ears, which have finer hair than the rest of their bodies.

 Chinchillas are extremely well-adapted to their environment, with short front legs and long, powerful hind legs that aid in climbing and jumping in the mountains. Short-tailed chinchillas can jump across six-foot crevices and have large feet with foot pads and weak claws which allows them to move over rock crevices without slipping. Short-tailed chinchillas have extremely long vibrissae, in comparison to their body size, measuring around 100 mm. Short-tailed chinchillas have large eyes with vertical slit pupils, which allow them to have a clear, wide view at night. Another prominent feature are the large ears of chinchillas which helps them hear faint sounds and listen for predators.

Although not much is known about short-tailed chinchilla behavior due to the shy nature of the species, they're known to be extremely intelligent creatures.^{[citation needed]} In nature, they are timid and stay hidden throughout the day to avoid predators. Chinchillas are crepuscular, awakening at dawn and dusk to find food. They navigate and forage through the darkness using their vibrissae. At dawn, chinchillas sunbathe and groom themselves by taking dust baths. In the wild, chinchillas living in the Andes Mountains will roll in volcanic ash to coat their fur and prevent matting due to oils from their skin. Owners of pet chinchillas often provide them with dust or sand baths to help distribute oils, clear any dirt, and keep their fur soft.

Chinchillas are social creatures, normally living in colonies that may range from several to a hundred individuals, in groups called herds.

Short-tailed chinchillas have one mating partner and are considered monogamous. Due to females being slightly larger than males, female chinchillas often dominate males and will mate twice a year. The breeding season is November to May in the Northern Hemisphere. They have gestation periods lasting for 128 days.

 Females may have up to two litters a year, but three is possible, but unusual. Litter size ranges from one to six offspring, called kits, with two being the average. Newborns chinchillas are capable of eating plant food and are weaned at 6 weeks old. Short-tailed chinchillas reach sexual maturity relatively quickly at an average age of 8 months, but it has been observed to occur at as young as 5.5 months with pet chinchillas or those in captivity. In the wild, short-tailed chinchillas typically have a lifespan of 8–10 years, as compared to in captivity, where they may survive for as long as 15–20 years.

 An interesting behavior has been observed with females, with other lactating females sometimes feeding the young of others if they're unable to produce milk. Unlike many rodent species, father chinchillas also take on a caring and nurturing role, taking care of offspring when the mother is collecting food.

Although they're not usually aggressive, pet chinchillas can develop a nipping tendency if handled improperly. If nipped or bitten by a predator, chinchillas can release tufts of hair, in order to escape. This leaves the predator with a mouth full of fur and is called a "fur slip". A fur slip happens when a chinchilla releases tufts of its hair to escape its predator. With pet chinchillas, fur slip occurs while owners are holding their pets tightly or if the chinchilla is stressed.

In order to communicate, short-tailed chinchillas vocalize and have specific calls. There are ten distinct sounds emitted by chinchillas and each varies based on the context of the situation. Chinchillas will make a whistle-like sound, growl, or chatter their teeth to warn and alarm others of danger. Short-tailed chinchillas have also been known to emit hiss-and-spit noises if provoked and a cooing sound while mating.^[7]

Short-tailed chinchillas primarily live in self-dug burrows or crevices of rocky areas with shrubs and grasses nearby, usually mountainous grasslands. Typically, their habitat has a sparse cover of thorny shrubs, cacti, and patches of succulents. Chinchillas live in arid climates at high altitudes with temperature dropping at night. Due to their environmental surroundings, chinchillas have adapted to expend less energy by having a low metabolic rate. Chinchillas are nocturnal creatures, often foraging for food at dusk and dawn.^[9]

 

  

The arid grassland habitat of chinchillas.

  

Natural habitat of C.chinchilla

Historically, short-tailed chinchillas lived in the Andes mountains and were native to Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. Although there has been speculation that chinchillas have become regionally extinct in Bolivia and Peru. In Bolivia, the chinchillas ranged from the La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi regions with the last wild specimens being captured by near Sabaya, and Caranga. However, a small population was recently discovered in Bolivia near the Laguna Colorada basin. Today, the only recorded sightings of short-tailed chinchillas has been in the Andes Mountains of northern Chile, where they remain endemic. In Chile, known chinchilla populations have been seen near the towns of El Laco, Morro Negro which are both near the Llullaillaco volcano in the Antofagasta region, as well as near the Nevado Tres Cruces National Park in the Atacama region.

Their range extends through the relatively barren areas of the Andes Mountains at an elevation of 9,800 to over 16,000 feet (3,000 to 5,000 meters).

The diet for chinchillas is heavily plant-based, mainly grasses and shrubs found on the sides of mountains. Short-tailed chinchillas are herbivores and mainly feed on high-fiber vegetation specifically foliage, leaves, shrubs, seeds, nuts, grasses, herbs, flowers, and grains. Short-tailed chinchillas also compete with other species for food, mainly grazers like goats and cattle.^{[citation needed]} Sometimes, they will feed on insects as part of their diet. However, their diet changes with the season, depending on what is available, mainly the perennial Chilean needle-grass. Short-tailed chinchillas acquire their drinking water through morning dew or from the flesh of various plants such as cacti. While eating, the short-tailed chinchilla sits upright and grasps its food in its front feet. Chinchillas are prone to overeating when an excess of food is available, so pet owners must be careful not to overfeed. Chinchillas also gnaw on whatever they can find to file down their constantly growing teeth.

Chinchillas were hunted and kept as pets by the ancient Incas. In the 1700s, commercial hunting of chinchillas began in Chile. Short-tailed chinchillas were first brought to the U.S. in the 1920s by a mining engineer named Mathias F. Chapman. Chapman loved chinchillas and received permission from the government of Chile to import 12 individuals of the species to the U.S. He made sure to allow the chinchillas to assimilate into their new environment. Over the course of a year, he brought the chinchillas to a lower altitude and fed them food from their natural habitat.^[4]

 The Andean fox

 Chinchillas have natural predators in the wild, on the ground and in the sky. Birds, such as owls and hawks may swoop down and snatch chinchillas. On the ground, snakes, wild cats, and foxes hunt chinchillas as prey. In the three recognized populations, the Andean fox is the main predator. However, chinchillas are agile and can run up to 15 mph, so they can escape predators.

Short-tailed chinchillas are impacted by human activities such as mining and firewood extraction. Mining operations are a significant threat to chinchillas due to the destruction of their habitats. In Chile, gold fields have been discovered, but mining these areas would disrupt chinchilla populations.^[10] One main critical threat to chinchillas is the burning and harvesting of the algarrobilla shrub, which is their natural habitat.^{[citation needed]} Since chinchillas are so well-adapted to their environments, any long-term environmental change threatens the species' survival. While hunting the species for their pelts, fur traders used dynamite to destroy their burrows and force the chinchillas out, which killed many in the process.^[4] The impact of these events has led to a 90% decrease in the short-tailed chinchilla population and caused them to go extinct in the three of the four countries where they were once found. 

 Many chinchillas are hunted for their fur and meat, often being bred for the pet and fur trade. Chinchilla fur is very fine and dense. One of their hair follicles can hold 50 hairs, while humans have 1 hair per follicle. Chinchilla fur is highly luxurious and in demand in the fur industry. Commercial hunting began in 1829 and increased every year by about half a million skins, as fur and skin demand increased in the United States and Europe: "[t]he continuous and intense harvesting rate [...] was not sustainable and the number of chinchillas hunted declined until the resource was considered economically extinct by 1917."

 Once the hunting started, demand for the chinchilla skins skyrocketed in the United States and Europe, causing an unsustainable decline for living chinchillas. The supply of chinchillas slowly diminished, with the last short-tailed chinchilla being seen in 1953, causing skin prices to increase drastically. Short-tailed chinchillas were especially sought-after due to their higher quality fur and larger size as compared to long-tailed chinchillas.^[8]

  Since short-tailed chinchillas are so rare and their wild colonies only recently rediscovered, they are absent in the pet trade. Instead, their close relatives, long-tailed chinchillas are frequently kept as pets and often mistaken for their short-tailed cousins. Potential early-generation short-tailed and long-tailed chinchilla hybrids are considered absent from any wildlife trade for a long time, if not ever.

The status of short-tailed chinchillas has declined by 90% over the years due to hunting and fur and trapping to support the fur trade. In the early 20th century, humans hunted chinchillas for their skins in great numbers which led to over 20 million individuals being killed. By the 1960s, both species of chinchilla, C.langiera and C.chinchilla were considered extinct in the wild. It wasn't until 1983, when specimens of short-tailed chinchillas were rediscovered.

 Short-tailed chinchillas faced the greatest hunting during the early 1900s, since the South American fur traders were exchanging the chinchilla with Europeans. To meet the growing demand of chinchilla fur in Europe, the Andean fur traders had to hunt at great numbers. As the fur trade of chinchillas became increasingly successful, people began to quit their jobs as miners and farmers to become hunters.

 

 Many inhumane hunting techniques were practiced to acquire the skins of chinchillas. These techniques ranged from using dogs to hunt to placing throned shrubs lit on fire into burrows. Others crushed chinchillas with large boulders. Throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s, half a million chinchilla skins were being exported by Chile. However, due to these practices, only 1/3 of the exported skins were able to be purchased. Buenos Aires exported the majority of the skins, including the pelts coming from Bolivia. At this rate of exploitation, the short-tailed chinchilla became extinct in Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina.

 

 To this day, only three populations are known. The short-tailed chinchillas are regionally extinct, except in Chile, but small groups have been rediscovered in Bolivia.^[11] Although, the short-tailed chinchillas is labeled as Critically Endangered in Bolivia. But, in Peru and Argentina, C.chinchilla is still labeled as Critically Endangered or Endangered instead of Extinct. In Chile, the species is Endangered. Chile has three regions where C.chinchilla can be found. In the Tarapacá region, they are considered "Extinguished", and in the Antofagasta and Atacama regions "Endangered".

In 1929, the first successful protection law prohibiting hunting chinchillas was passed in Chile, but weren't effectively enforced until the establishment in 1983 of the Reserva Nacional Las Chinchillas in Auco, Chile.^[4] Because of an impending extinction of short-tailed chinchillas, conservation measures were implemented in the 1890s in Chile. However, these measures were unregulated. The 1910 treaty between Chile, Bolivia and Peru brought the first international efforts to ban the hunting and commercial harvesting of chinchillas. Unfortunately, this effort led to great price increases, which caused a further decline of the remaining populations.^[5]

 

Today, short-tailed chinchillas are still considered Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Unfortunately, even with commercial hunting being illegal the last 100 years, C.chinchilla has not recovered or redistributed to their former areas of living. The populations that remain are small and isolated groups, which has caused reproductive isolation and led to inbreeding depression and low genetic diversity. This has caused a lower genetic fitness and further increased the species' risk of extinction.^[12] However, several individuals from a wild population were transferred to a breeding program in order to increase genetic diversity for captive populations.^[13]

 Certain groups such "Save the Wild Chinchillas" help to raise awareness on the current status of the short-tailed chinchillas. In order to save the species, more research and surveys need to be done to find the location of other populations. If these actions are not taken, short-tailed chinchillas risk extinction within a matter of years.

Short-tailed chinchillas in captivity are difficult to breed experimentally, which leads to high percentages of sterility. In captivity, there have been attempts to crossbreed long-tailed chinchillas and short-tailed chinchillas which have resulted in a few individuals.^[12]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Past range of Chinchilla chinchilla.

THE ANDEAN PORCUPINE

 

The Andean porcupine (Coendou quichua) or Quichua porcupine is a species of rodent in the family Erethizontidae.^[3] It is found in the Andes of northern Ecuador and Colombia as well as in Panama.^[1] This porcupine is little known, but is probably arboreal, nocturnal and solitary like its relatives.^[1] The species is thought to be uncommon to rare and the population decreasing. It is threatened by deforestation, habitat 

 

 Although it is morphologically distinctive, it has sometimes been described as a subspecies of the bicolored-spined porcupine (C. bicolor).^[3][4] However, genetic studies have shown it to be closest to the stump-tailed porcupine (C. rufescens).^[5] Rothschild's porcupine (C. rothschildi) of Panama was formerly considered a distinct species, but phylogenetic evidence indicates that both are synonymous.^[6]

The Andean porcupine is a medium-sized porcupine with a head-and-body length of between 332 and 420 mm (13.1 and 16.5 in) and a tail length of between 290 and 413 mm (11.4 and 16.3 in). A fully grown adult weighs in the region of 2 kg (4 lb). The nose is pink and large, and the eyes are small. The body is spiny all over, the evenly spaced spines being dark with yellowish tips in the animal's mid section. The tail tapers from a broad base and is prehensile.^[7] This porcupine could be confused with the Mexican hairy dwarf porcupine (Sphiggurus mexicanus), but that species has long black hair which largely conceals the spines while the Andean is more obviously spiny.^[7]

The ecology of this species is little known. Its behaviour is likely to resemble that of its close relatives in being nocturnal and arboreal, and feeding on fruit and leaves.^[7]

The Andean porcupine is listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as "data deficient". This is because of its uncertain taxonomic status as well as the lack of recent information on its abundance, the threats it faces and its needs. It is generally an uncommon or rare species and it is suspected that its population is decreasing, due to degradation and fragmentation of its habitat as the forest is felled for conversion to agricultural use. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Range in Panama 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE CAPE PORCUPINE

 

The Cape porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis), Cape crested porcupine or South African porcupine, is a species of Old World porcupine native to central and southern Africa.

Cape porcupines are the largest rodents in Africa and also the largest species of porcupine. Cape porcupines are amongst the largest living rodents in the world; a few other rodents appear to be larger in body mass such as the capybara and the Eurasian and North American beavers.^[2][3][4] They are similar in appearance to the slightly smaller and closely related crested porcupine. They can most easily be distinguished from them by the presence of a band of short white spines along the midline of the rump. Indian porcupines are almost the same size on average as well, being slightly heavier on average than crested porcupines but slightly lighter than Cape porcupines.^[5][6]

 Cape porcupines measure 63 to 81 centimetres (25 to 32 inches) long from the head to the base of the tail, with the tail adding a further 11–20 centimetres (4.3–7.9 inches).^[2] They weigh from 10 to 24 kilograms (22 to 53 pounds), with exceptionally large specimens weighing up to 30 kg (66 lb);^[7][8] males and females are not significantly different in size. The average weight of males from Zimbabwe was 16.9 kg (37 lb) and while the average for females there was 18.4 kg (41 lb) while in the Orange river valley of South Africa males averaged 12.3 kg (27 lb) and females averaged 13 kg (29 lb).^[2]

 

They are heavily-built animals, with stocky bodies, short limbs, and an inconspicuous tail. The body is covered in long spines up to 50 centimetres (20 in) in length, interspersed with thicker, sharply pointed, defence quills up to 30 centimetres (12 in) long, and with bristly, blackish or brownish fur. The spines on the tail are hollow, and used to make a rattling sound to scare away predators. An erectile crest of long, bristly hairs runs from the top of the head down to the shoulders. The spines and quills cover the back and flanks of the animal, starting about a third of the way down the body, and continuing onto the tail. The quills have multiple bands of black and white along their length, and grow from regularly spaced grooves along the animal's body; each groove holding five to eight quills. The remainder of the animal, including the undersides, is covered with dark hair.^[2]

 

 

The eyes and ears are relatively small, and the mobile whiskers are short. The feet have five clawed toes, although the first toes on the forefeet are vestigial. Females have two pairs of teats.^[2]

Cape porcupines are found across the whole of southern and central Africa, to southern Kenya, Uganda, and Congo at the northern edge of their range. They inhabit a wide range of habitats, from sea level to 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), although they are only marginally present in dense forests and the driest of deserts, and are not found in swampland.^[1][9] There are no currently recognised subspecies.

Debarking of a buffalo thorn by a Cape porcupine

 

 Cape porcupines eat mostly plant material: fruits, roots, tubers, bulbs, and bark. They have a long small intestine and large caecum, employing hindgut fermentation to break down the tough materials in their food.^[10] They have also been reported to gnaw on carrion and bones. They are often considered pests by local farmers, because they can feed on crops and damage trees.^[2] However, their debarking of trees may also play a role in the maintenance of local savannah ecosystems, helping to prevent the development of denser forested environments.^[11]

 Cape porcupines are nocturnal and monogamous, typically living as mated pairs of adults, caring for any young together. Each pair may inhabit up to six burrows, jointly defending their shared territory,^[12] although they typically forage as individuals.^[9] Both sexes scent mark their territory, although males do so more frequently, and may play a more active role in its defence.^[13] The size of the home range varies depending on the local habitat and availability of food, but can range between at least 67 and 203 hectares (170 and 500 acres).^[2]

 

 When attacked, the porcupine freezes. If cornered, it turns vicious and charges to stab its attacker with its quills. Otherwise, the porcupine may retreat into its burrow, exposing only its quills and making it hard to dislodge.

Cape porcupines mate throughout the year, although births are most common during the rainy season, between August and March. Unless a previous litter is lost, females typically give birth only once each year. Oestrus lasts for an average of nine days, during which a membrane across the vagina opens to allow insemination.^[14] After mating, a copulatory plug forms, which is expelled about 48 hours later.^[15]

 

 Gestation lasts around 94 days, and results in the birth of a litter of up to three young, although over half of births are of singletons.^[14] Newborn young weigh 300 to 440 grams (11 to 16 oz), and initially have soft quills that will harden in a few hours. Although they are born with their incisor teeth fully erupted, the remaining teeth begin to appear at 14 days, with the full set of adult teeth present by 25 months.^[16] They are weaned at around 100 days of age,^[14] and grow rapidly for the first twenty weeks, reaching the full adult size, and sexual maturity, at the end of their first year.^[17]

 

 

Relative to most other rodents, Cape porcupines are long-lived, surviving for 10 years in the wild, or up to 20 years in captivity.^[2]

 

 

 

 

   range

 

 

 

 Porcupine head

 

 

 

THE ASIATIC BUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE

 

The Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus macrourus) is a species of rodent in the family Hystricidae. It is found in China, Bhutan, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.

 The synonyms of this species are Atherurus assamensis (Thomas, 1921), and Atherurus macrourus (Thomas, 1921) subspecies assamensis.^[1]

It is a nocturnal and fossorial species, occurring in subtropical and tropical montane forests. It is found on the forest floor, often in areas with profuse undergrowth interspersed with cane and bamboo brakes and palms.^[2]

It constructs burrows, which may be occupied by up to three animals. The female produces one or two litters a year, of a single young, after a gestation period of 100 to 110 days.^[3]

Known to be one of the rarest porcupines in South Asia,^[4] the species is protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, though not listed in CITES. It has been recorded from Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh, India.^[5] It is present in a number of protected areas in Southeast Asia.

In one study using camera traps, it was found that the porcupine typically hunts at night, with a single activity peak during the three-hour period before midnight. To avoid predators on nights when the moon is full, foraging activity is limited to dawn and dusk